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Integrated analysis of carbon dioxide and oxygen concentrations as a quality control of ocean float data

Posted by mmaheigan

· Friday, August 26th, 2022

A recent study in Communications Earth & Environment, examined spatiotemporal patterns of the two dissolved gases CO₂ and O₂in the surface ocean, using the high-quality global dataset GLODAPv2.2020. We used surface ocean data from GLODAP to make plots of carbon dioxide and oxygen relative to saturation (CORS plots). These plots of CO₂ deviations from saturation (ΔCO₂) against oxygen deviations from saturation (ΔO₂) (Figure 1) provide detailed insight into the identity and intensity of biogeochemical processes operating in different basins.

Figure 1: Relationships between ΔCO₂ and ΔO₂ in the global ocean basins based on surface data in the GLODAPv2.2020 database. The black dashed lines are the least-squares best-fit lines to the data; unc denotes the uncertainty in the y-intercept value with 95% confidence; r is the associated Pearson correlation coefficient; n is the number of data points.

In addition, data in all basins and all seasons shares some common behaviors: (1) negative slopes of best fit lines to the data, and (2) near-zero y-intercepts of those lines. We utilized these findings to compare patterns in CORS plots from GLODAP with those from BGC-Argo float data from the Southern Ocean Carbon and Climate Observations and Modeling (SOCCOM) program. Given that the float O₂ data is likely to be more accurate than the float pH data (from which the float CO₂ is calculated), CORS plots are useful for detecting questionable float CO₂ data, by comparing trends in float CORS plots (e.g. Figure 2) to trends in GLODAP CORS plots (Figure 1). As well as the immediately detected erroneous data, we discovered significant discrepancies in ΔCO₂-ΔO₂ y-intercepts compared to the global reference (i.e., GLODAPv2.2020 y-intercepts, Figure 1). The y-intercepts of 48 floats with QCed O₂ and CO₂ data (at regions south of 55°S) were on average greater by 0.36 μmol kg⁻¹ than the GLODAP-derived ones, implying the overestimations of float-based CO₂ release in the Southern Ocean.

Figure 2. CORS plots from data collected by SOCCOM floats F9096 and F9099 in the high-latitude Southern Ocean. Circles with solid edges denote data flagged as ‘good’, whereas crosses denote data flagged as ‘questionable’.

Our study demonstrates CORS plots’ ability to identify questionable data (data shown to be questionable by other QC methods) and to reveal issues with supposed ‘good’ data (i.e., quality issues not picked up by other QC methods). CORS plots use only surface data, hence this QC method complements existing methods based on analysis of deep data. As the oceanographic community becomes increasingly reliant on data collected from autonomous platforms, techniques like CORS will help diagnose data quality, and immediately detect questionable data.

Authors:
Yingxu Wu (Polar and Marine Research Institute, Jimei University, Xiamen, China; University of Southampton)
Dorothee C.E. Bakker (University of East Anglia)
Eric P. Achterberg (GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel)
Amavi N. Silva (University of Southampton)
Daisy D. Pickup (University of Southampton)
Xiang Li (George Washington University)
Sue Hartman (National Oceanography Centre, Southampton)
David Stappard (University of Southampton)
Di Qi (Polar and Marine Research Institute, Jimei University, Xiamen, China)
Toby Tyrrell (University of Southampton)

A new era of observing the ocean carbonate system

Posted by mmaheigan

· Tuesday, August 6th, 2019

Amidst a backdrop of natural variability, the ocean carbonate system is undergoing a massive anthropogenic change. To capture this anthropogenic signal and differentiate it from natural variability, carbonate observations are needed across a range of spatial and temporal scales (Figure 1), many of which are not captured by traditional oceanographic platforms. A new review of autonomous carbonate observations published in Current Climate Change Reports highlights the development and deployment of pH sensors capable of in situ measurements on autonomous platforms, which represents a major step forward in observing the ocean carbonate system. These sensors have been rigorously field-tested via large-scale deployments on profiling floats in the Southern Ocean (Southern Ocean Carbon and Climate Observations and Modeling, SOCCOM), providing an unprecedented wealth of year-round data that have demonstrated the importance of wintertime outgassing of carbon dioxide in the Southern Ocean.

Figure 1: Observational capabilities and carbonate system processes as a function of time and space. Ocean processes that affect the carbonate system (solid color shapes—labeled in the legend) are depicted as a function of the temporal and spatial scales over which they must be observed to capture important variability and/or long-term change.

Most current autonomous platforms routinely measure only a single carbonate parameter, which then requires an algorithm to estimate a second parameter so that the rest of the carbonate system can be calculated. However, the ongoing development of sensors and systems to measure, rather than estimate, other carbonate parameters may greatly reduce uncertainty in constraining the full carbonate system. It is critical that the community continue to develop and adhere to best practices for calibration and data handling as existing sensors are deployed in increasing numbers and new sensors become available. Expanding autonomous carbonate measurements will increase our understanding of how anthropogenic change impacts natural variability and will provide a means to monitor carbon uptake by the ocean in real-time at high spatial and temporal resolution. This will not only help to understand the mechanisms driving changes in the ocean carbonate system, but will allow new insights in the role of mesoscale processes in regional and global biogeochemical cycles.

Authors:
Seth M. Bushinsky (Princeton University/University of Hawai’i Mānoa)
Yuichiro Takeshita (Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute)
Nancy L. Williams (Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory – NOAA / University of South Florida)

Artificial light from sampling platforms changes zooplankton behavior

Posted by mmaheigan

· Monday, November 26th, 2018

When designing sampling we make generally accepted assumptions that what we collect is representative of what is “normal” or naturally occurring at the place, time, and depth of collection. However, a recent study in Science Advances revealed that this might not be true. During round-the-clock shipboard sampling, lights used at night can actually be a form of pollution that disrupts the diel cycle of zooplankton vertical migration.

Effect of light pollution on krill from a ship (left), diel vertical migration in natural dark conditions (middle) and effect of moonlight (right). Figure by Malin Daase (UiT).

Using a Autonomous Surface Vehicle the authors documented zooplankton behavioral patterns of light avoidance never previously seen. The study compared results from high Arctic polar night (unpolluted light environment for an extended time), to near ship samples. During months of near constant darkness in the Arctic, there was still a diel vertical migration of zooplankton limited to the upper 30 m of the water column and centered around the local sun noon. Contrasting the results from light-polluted and unpolluted areas, the authors observed that the vast majority of the pelagic community exhibit a strong light-escape response in the presence of artificial light (both ship light and even headlamps from researchers in open boats). This effect was observed down to 100 m depth and 190 m from the ship. These results suggest that artificial light from traditional sampling platforms may bias studies of zooplankton abundance and diel migration within the upper 100 m. These findings underscore the need for alternative sampling methods such as autonomous platforms, particularly in dim-light conditions, to collect more accurate and representative physical and biological data for ecological studies. In addition to research cruises and sampling, anthropogenic light pollution from predicted increases in shipping, oil and gas exploration, and light-fishing are anticipated to impact the diel rhythms of zooplankton behavior all around the globe.

Authors:
Jørgen Berge (Norwegian University of Technology and Science; UiT The Arctic University of Norway)
Martin Ludvigsen (Norwegian University of Technology and Science; University Centre in Svalbard)
Maxime Geoffroy (UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Memorial University of Newfoundland)
Jonathan H. Cohen (University of Delaware)
Pedro R. De La Torre (Norwegian University of Technology and Science)
Stein M. Nornes (Norwegian University of Technology and Science)
Hanumant Singh (Northeastern University)
Asgeir J. Sørensen (Norwegian University of Technology and Science)
Malin Daase (Norwegian University of Technology and Science)
Geir Johnsen (Norwegian University of Technology and Science; Norwegian University of Technology and Science)

WBC Series: Observing air-sea interaction in the western boundary currents and their extension regions: Considerations for OceanObs 2019

Posted by mmaheigan

· Friday, November 10th, 2017

Dongxiao Zhang^1,2, Meghan F. Cronin², Xiaopei Lin³, Ryuichiro Inoue⁴, Andrea J. Fassbender⁵, Stuart P. Bishop⁶, Adrienne Sutton²

1. University of Washington
2. NOAA Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory
3. Ocean University of China, China
4. Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology, Japan
5. Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute
6. North Carolina State University

Western boundary currents (WBCs) and their extensions (WBCE) are characterized by intense air-sea heat, momentum, buoyancy, and carbon dioxide (CO₂) fluxes (Figure 1a). These large ocean-atmosphere exchanges contribute to the global balance of physical and biogeochemical ocean properties. Excess heat absorbed by the ocean in the tropics is transported poleward, mainly by WBCs (Trenberth and Solomon 1994; Fillenbaum et al. 1997; Zhang et al. 2001; Johns et al. 2011), and then released back to the atmosphere along the WBCs and their extensions in subtropical mid-latitudes at the subtropical and subarctic ocean boundaries (Figure 1a). For this reason, WBC regions are referred to as climatic “hot spots” (Nakamura et al. 2015). Likewise, WBC regions are ocean carbon hot spots, areas of large CO₂ uptake that counterbalance the large CO₂ outgassing in the tropics (Figure 1b). For OceanObs’09, Cronin et al. (2010) made strong recommendations to include multidisciplinary observations in WBC regional observing systems. The present need for such a system is more urgent than ever. While many open questions remain regarding the role of eddies in ventilation and mode water formation events and their interaction with the biological pump, new technologies are making multidisciplinary observations at these scales more feasible than ever. Use of these new tools during process studies could help to address many of the remaining open questions in WBC regions. OceanObs’19 is two years away, making it timely to review the present observing system for WBC regions and begin strategizing the necessary improvements for the next decade.

Figure 1. Annual mean air-sea net surface heat flux into the ocean from objectively analyzed flux (OAFlux; Yu and Weller 2007) and sea-to-air surface CO2 flux from Takahashi et al. (2009). White contours are the mean dynamic sea level (Rio and Hernandez 2004); star is the NOAA/PMEL KEO location. The WBC regions in the boxes are the Kuroshio-Oyashio Extension (KOE), Gulf Stream (GS), Brazil and Malvinas Currents (BMC), East Australian Current (EAC), and Agulhas Return Current (ARC). Figure adapted from Cronin et al. (2010).

The following sections briefly describe requirements of the ocean observing system in WBC regions, and how the current or planned observing system is meeting these requirements, such as international partnerships and collaborations. We also briefly discuss some underway process studies and raise some questions that still need to be addressed, by using the Kuroshio Extension observing system as an example that is applicable to other WBC regions. The goal of this article is to motivate discussion for developing future WBC regional observing systems in preparation for OceanObs’19.

Multiscale multidisciplinary air-sea interaction in WBC regions

Following the principles of the Framework for Ocean Observing (Lindstrom et al. 2012), the first step in developing an “observing system that is fit for purpose” is to define the observational requirements of the system, keeping in mind that these can only be fulfilled by an integrated system that spans multiple time and space scales.

A key characteristic of WBC regions is that their intense air-sea fluxes are associated with strong fronts and energized mesoscale and submesoscale eddies. Strong air-sea heat fluxes effectively project the SST front into the atmosphere, potentially affecting storm tracks and mid-latitude weather (Minobe et al. 2008; Small et al. 2008; Kwon et al. 2010). Carbon uptake in the WBCs is largely controlled by physical processes associated with wintertime heat loss that decreases both SST and surface water pCO₂ and increases the ocean’s thermodynamic drive to absorb atmospheric CO₂. Furthermore, winter heat loss in WBC regions leads to subduction and the formation of mode waters (Qiu et al. 2006; Cronin et al. 2013; Oka et al. 2015) that transport the absorbed CO₂ to the ocean interior and act as an important anthropogenic CO₂ sink pathway (Sabine et al. 2004). However, the biological pump also plays an important role in determining the magnitude of natural carbon uptake in the transition region between subtropical and subarctic waters (Takahashi et al. 2009; Fassbender et al. 2017; Wakita et al., 2016). Primary production and ecosystem structure and function are strongly regulated by the energetic fronts and (sub)mesoscale eddies associated with WBCs that supply nutrients to the euphotic zone via upwelling (McGillicuddy 2016; Mahadevan 2016; and the references therein) and cross-frontal exchange between high-nutrient, cold subarctic waters and low-nutrient, warm subtropical waters in the upper ocean (Ayers and Lozier 2012; Nagano et al. 2016; Nagai and Clayton 2017). Questions remain about the importance of these biological processes in local anthropogenic carbon uptake relative to other large-scale chemical and physical processes, such as changes in the seawater buffer capacity and mode and intermediate water formation rates. Within the ocean and atmosphere physics communities, it is becoming clear that to properly represent the energy balance of the climate system in a WBC region, it is necessary to resolve the multi-scale ocean and atmosphere interactions, from large-scale to frontal scale to mesoscale, and potentially even submesoscale. As discussed at the recent joint US CLIVAR and Ocean Carbon and Biogeochemistry (OCB) Ocean Carbon Hot Spots workshop, this is less clear for the biogeochemical system. While biological production is clearly sensitive to fronts and eddies – and recent data from the Kuroshio Extension Observatory (KEO) sediment trap show an accumulation peak that can be traced back to a cold-core eddy (M. Honda, pers. comm. 2017) – physical controls of solubility and buffer capacity may be more important for the carbon cycle. Participants of the Ocean Carbon Hot Spots workshop discussed the challenge of quantifying CO₂ uptake and understanding air-sea exchange processes in WBC regions in the face of an incomplete observing system and lack of coverage across the fronts and eddies in these systems. Process studies will enable us to examine the complex relationships between air-sea fluxes, eddy activity, mode water formation, physical and biogeochemical properties of mode waters, and primary production. An improved understanding of these physical-chemical-biological interactions can reveal important information about the underlying mechanisms driving low-frequency decadal variations and gyre-scale circulation in WBC regions. These multi-scale, coupled interactions must be considered in the development of a more comprehensive “fit for purpose” WBC regional observing system.

Observing systems of WBC regions

Satellites represent a critical component of all observing systems, delivering global coverage. Because WBC regional fronts are often associated with clouds and rain that can disrupt satellite remote sensing, some remotely sensed fields could have systematic biases in frontal regions. Thus, the WBC regional observing system plan must include efforts to avoid biases and aliasing from improperly resolved fronts and eddies.

Strong currents, winter storms, and warm season typhoons and hurricanes can also make WBC regions challenging for in situ observations. Of all the WBC regions, the Kuroshio Extension currently has the most complete observing system, so we focus on this system as a potential roadmap for other systems.

Kuroshio Extension Observatory: NOAA surface mooring and JAMSTEC sediment trap

One of the most important observing system components in the Kuroshio Extension is NOAA’s long-term climate reference station, KEO. KEO is strategically located in the Kuroshio Extension recirculation gyre at 32.3°N, 144.5°E (star in Figure 1) on the warm side of the Kuroshio front, an ideal region for monitoring the air-sea interactions that result in mode water formation through winter and spring. Additionally, the site is frequently visited by typhoons during summer and early fall, providing case studies of air-sea interactions between warm water and strong storms. Since 2004, NOAA/PMEL’s Ocean Climate Stations group has maintained a surface mooring at KEO. The NOAA surface mooring measures the meteorological, biogeochemical, and physical ocean variables for estimating air-sea exchanges of heat, moisture, momentum, and carbon dioxide; ocean acidification; and upper ocean variability associated with air-sea interaction. Data are freely available in real time (Figure 2) and are available on GTS (Global Telecommunication System) for improving numerical weather prediction and ocean-atmosphere reanalysis.

Since 2014, Honda et al. (JAMSTEC) have maintained a sediment trap mooring at KEO (Honda pers. comm. 2017). Prior to this, the sediment trap had been deployed at the Japanese S1 mooring, located southeast of KEO at 30°N, 145°E (Honda et al. 2017). The deep sediment trap at 5000 m (800 m above sea floor) positioned next to the KEO surface mooring provides crucial information about the processes affecting nutrient supply that supports ocean productivity and biological carbon export in this subtropical oligotrophic region.

Figure 2. An example of KEO surface observations from real-time data display and delivery web pages.

Japanese-funded process studies JKEO, Hot-Spot, and INBOX

Over the past 13 years, there have been a number of process studies in the Kuroshio Extension region. Most notably, the US-funded Kuroshio Extension System Study (KESS) focused on the dynamics of the mesoscale meanders on the Kuroshio Extension and their interaction with the recirculation gyres north and south of the jet (Jayne et al. 2009; Donohue et al. 2008). This was followed by a study of the effect of the Kuroshio Extension front on the air-sea fluxes and interactions, through deployment of a JAMSTEC-KEO (JKEO) surface mooring north of the Kuroshio Extension front paired with the NOAA KEO mooring south of the front (Konda et al. 2010). Then from 2010 to 2015, the extremely successful Japanese process study, “Multi-Scale Air-Sea Interaction under the East-Asian Monsoon: A ‘Hot Spot’ in the Climate System” (Hot-Spot), led to a large field experiment in the region that included a surface flux mooring K-TRITON buoy deployed closer to the center of the Kuroshio Extension jet, which captured the unusual mesoscale exchanges of water mass properties across the Kuroshio Extension front (Nagano et al. 2016). Another Hot-Spot study with three research vessels, each occupying a half-degree latitude between 35°N-37°N along 143°E and transiting back and forth across the Kuroshio Extension SST front (Kawai et al. 2015), showed unprecedented details of dramatic surface latent and sensible heat flux changes and the response of the deep atmospheric boundary layer across the SST front.

While the Japanese Hot-Spot experiment focused on the physical air-sea interactions, the Japanese Western North Pacific Integrated Physical-Biogeochemical Ocean Observation Experiment (INBOX) (Inoue et al. 2016a) focused on biophysical interactions. In 2011, centered around the S1 mooring in a 150-km box, 18 Argo floats equipped with dissolved oxygen sensors were deployed. In addition, a four-month Seaglider survey was conducted between S1 and KEO in 2014. Results showed a strong association between dissolved oxygen patchiness and mesoscale and submesoscale eddies. With proper coordination through CLIVAR, leveraging international research funding could expand these Japanese-funded experiments.

Chinese KEO buoy

Motivated by recent exciting findings from ultra-high-resolution coupled model simulations showing the importance of latent and sensible heat release from warm ocean eddies in forcing the atmosphere (Ma et al. 2015) and regulating the Kuroshio Extension jet (Ma et al. 2016), the Ocean University of China has successfully deployed an air-sea flux buoy, the Chinese KEO (C-KEO), north of Kuroshio Extension axis at 39ºN, 149.25ºE in October 2017. Similar to KEO, both subsurface and surface measurements at C-KEO will be transmitted and made available to the scientific community in real time when it reaches stable state. In addition, the Ocean University of China has deployed three subsurface moorings (M1: 32.4ºN, 146.2ºE; M2: 39ºN, 150ºE; and M3: 35ºN, 147.6ºE) equipped with ADCP, CTD, a current meter, and McLane Moored Profiler (M1) to monitor the subsurface eddy structure and variability. Over the past three years, they have deployed 19 Argo floats in the Kuroshio Extension region, with a cluster of floats deployed in an anticyclone eddy, providing the detailed eddy contribution to the subduction and mode water formation (Xu et al. 2016). The Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, as part of its ‘Transparent Ocean’ project, support all of these observing activities.

Challenges and emerging technologies

Characterized by strong winds, high seas, and fast and deep currents, WBC regions are some of the most challenging environments to observe with moored surface buoys. KEO’s long history of success demonstrates that with careful planning, dedication, and international collaborations, sustained moored buoys can be maintained in WBC regions to provide long time series of high-frequency and high-quality simultaneous measurements of subsurface and surface variables. However, due to increased risk of breaking mooring lines in strong, deep jet streams, it is recommended that these long-term reference sites be placed outside of the strongest jet and in the recirculation gyre or northern flank of the jet, like KEO, or the former J-KEO and new C-KEO moorings.

Lagrangian floats have proven to be ideal for studying small-scale fronts and eddies (Shcherbina et al. 2014; Thomas et al. 2017; Inoue et al. 2016b; Xu et al. 2016). Newly available Biogeochemical (BGC)-Argo floats (Johnson and Claustre 2016) may be especially useful for monitoring ocean carbon hot spots to gain a more complete understanding of physical and biogeochemical processes in WBC regions. However, for sustained monitoring and quantifying heat or carbon uptake in eddy-rich WBC regions, a Lagrangian float array would have difficulty to maintain position in strong jets and is susceptible to sampling biases due to the tendency of the floats to be more likely trapped in cyclonic eddies (Rainville et al. 2014; Legg and McWilliams 2002). Controlled surveys by self-propelled autonomous underwater gliders will therefore be necessary to measure moving fronts and eddies and augment moored and Lagrangian components of the observing system.

In situ air-sea flux measurements across fronts and eddies have traditionally required research vessels or voluntary observing ships restricted to limited transit tracks (Fairall et al. 2003; Smith et al. 2016; Palevsky et al. 2016). However, new unmanned surface vehicles (USV) such as Wavegliders (Thompson and Girton 2017) and Saildrones (Meinig et al. 2015; Mordy et al. 2017) are now also being used for air-sea flux measurements of this nature. The Saildrone is especially well suited for collecting observations in the challenging sea conditions of WBC regions. Powered by wind and solar energy with average speed of 3-5 knots (depending on wind, with maximum speed of 7-8 knot), the Saildrone is two times faster than other USVs and has completed a voyage at sea lasting 12 months and covering 16,000 nautical miles. To make the Saildrone capable of observing air-sea exchange processes, NOAA/PMEL, the University of Washington, and Saildrone, Inc. have collaborated to successfully install sensors with equivalent or better quality than those currently used on tropical atmosphere and ocean (TAO) buoys for air-sea flux measurements, as well as a 300 kHz acoustic doppler current profiler (ADCP) for upper ocean current measurements. The standard Saildrone sensor suite also includes: the new PMEL autonomous surface vehicle CO₂ system for air-sea CO₂ flux measurements; sea surface dissolved oxygen, pH, and chlorophyll sensors; and subsurface backscatter sensing capability from the ADCP, making it a truly interdisciplinary observing platform (Figure 3). Most importantly, Saildrone deployments, measurements, and platform recoveries require no ship time. For example, two Saildrones were recently launched from San Francisco, CA with missions to the eastern tropical Pacific as part of the Tropical Pacific Observing System 2020 project (TPOS2020) and to participate in the field campaign of the NASA Salinity Processes in the Upper Ocean Regional Study (SPURS-2).

Figure 3. Physical and biogeochemical variables measured by Saildrone.

Conceptual WBC regional observing system for Ocean Obs’19

With uninterrupted satellite measurements of winds, sea surface height, SST, sea surface salinity, precipitation, and ocean color providing a large-scale context of in situ observations, a sustained WBC regional observing system should have the following components to observe multi-scale multidisciplinary processes:

Long-term moored climate reference buoys in the upper ocean equipped with air-sea flux, physical, and biogeochemical sensors and sediment traps, preferably at the opposite flanks of the WBC extension jets
An array of Lagrangian floats, especially BGC-Argo floats, equipped with standard biogeochemical sensors
Underwater gliders for controlled observations of the subsurface ocean and across fronts and eddies
Unmanned surface vehicle sections crossing WBC regional fronts and eddies around and between reference buoys
Underway shipboard measurements including launch of weather balloons when crossing fronts and eddies during float deployments and glider operations

Before such an observing system can be fully developed, process studies are recommended to better understand key physical and biogeochemical processes operating in WBC regions and their associated temporal and spatial scales of variability. Process studies will also inform and optimize the use of newer technologies such as self-navigating platforms together with Lagrangian and Eulerian observations in WBC regions.

Acknowledgements

This is a NOAA PMEL contribution number 4725 and is partially funded by the Joint Institute for the Study of the Atmosphere and Ocean (JISAO) under NOAA Cooperative Agreement and NA15OAR4320063, Contribution No. 2017-0118.

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WBC Series: Frontiers in western boundary current research

Posted by mmaheigan

· Friday, November 10th, 2017

WBC Series Guest Editors: Andrea J. Fassbender¹ and Stuart P. Bishop²

1. Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute
2. North Carolina State University

Western boundary current (WBC) regions are often studied for their intensity of air-sea interaction and mesoscale variability, yet research addressing the implications of these characteristics for biogeochemical cycling has lagged behind. WBCs, and their extension jets, display a wide breadth of physical processes that give rise to variability ranging from submesoscale (1-10 km) to basin scale (1000 km). WBC extension jets can act as both barriers and conduits for biological and chemical exchanges between subpolar-subtropical water masses, likely serving an important role in local chemical fluxes and biological community composition. Additionally, WBC regions are known for their formation of subtropical mode waters, carrying their source water biogeochemical signatures into the ocean interior. Interactions between (sub)mesoscale processes, mode water formation, and cross frontal exchanges of chemicals and organisms remain an important and nascent area of research.

In addition to the physical dynamics, many questions remain regarding the role of WBC regions in the global carbon cycle. Recent work suggests that these domains exhibit physically mediated export of biogenic particles and are gateways for anthropogenic carbon injection into the ocean interior. Such recent discovery that WBC processes may be strongly linked to the biological carbon pump and anthropogenic carbon storage speaks to the challenges associated with observing these ocean realms. While much has been learned from pairing satellite remote sensing with in situ physical oceanographic observations, biogeochemical analyses have historically been limited by the lack of necessary observing tools. Thus, there remains a critical knowledge gap on the role of WBCs in the global carbon cycle and other biogeochemical cycles.

With OceanObs’19 approximately two years away, the recent Ocean Carbon Hot Spots workshop assessed community interests and perspectives, revealing that it is an opportune time to make use of novel autonomous observing platforms and biogeochemical sensors to unravel some of the mysteries surrounding the role of WBC extensions in marine biogeochemical cycling. The articles herein present some of the most pressing research questions and observing hurdles related to WBCs from the perspectives of physical, chemical, and biological oceanographers and modelers working in this arena.

Series Articles:

Fine-scale biophysical controls on nutrient supply, phytoplankton community structure, and carbon export in western boundary current regions, S. Clayton, P. Gaube, T. Nagai, M.M. Omand, M. Honda

Decadal variability of the Kuroshio Extension system and its impact on subtropical mode water formation B. Qiu, E. Oka, S.P. Bishop, S. Chen, A.J. Fassbender

Western boundary currents as conduits for the ejection of anthropogenic carbon from the thermocline K.B. Rodgers, P. Zhai, D. Iudicone, O. Aumont, B. Carter, A. J. Fassbender, S. M. Griffies, Y. Plancherel, L. Resplandy, R.D. Slater, K. Toyama

The role of western boundary current regions in the global carbon cycle A.R. Gray, J. Palter

Observing air-sea interaction in the western boundary currents and their extension regions: Considerations for OceanObs 2019 D. Zhang, M.F. Cronin, X. Lin, R. Inoue, A.J. Fassbender, S.P. Bishop, A. Sutton

US CLIVAR Variations Issue PDF (compiled articles)

WBC Series: Fine-scale biophysical controls on nutrient supply, phytoplankton community structure, and carbon export in western boundary current regions

Posted by mmaheigan

· Friday, November 10th, 2017

Sophie Clayton¹, Peter Gaube¹, Takeyoshi Nagai², Melissa M. Omand³, Makio Honda⁴

1. University of Washington
2. Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Japan
3. University of Rhode Island
4. Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology, Japan

Western boundary current (WBC) regions are largely thought to be hotspots of productivity, biodiversity, and carbon export. The distinct biogeographical characteristics of the biomes bordering WBC fronts change abruptly from stable, subtropical waters to highly seasonal subpolar gyres. The large-scale convergence of these distinct water masses brings different ecosystems into close proximity allowing for cross-frontal exchange. Although the strong horizontal density gradient maintains environmental gradients, instabilities lead to the formation of meanders, filaments, and rings that mediate the exchange of physical, chemical, and ecological properties across the front. WBC systems also act as large-scale conduits, transporting tracers over thousands of kilometers. The combination of these local perturbations and the short advective timescale for water parcels passing through the system is likely the driver of the enhanced local productivity, biodiversity, and carbon export observed in these regions. Our understanding of biophysical interactions in the WBCs, however, is limited by the paucity of in situ observations, which concurrently resolve chemical, biological, and physical properties at fine spatial and temporal scales (1-10 km, days). Here, we review the current state of knowledge of fine-scale biophysical interactions in WBC systems, focusing on their impacts on nutrient supply, phytoplankton community structure, and carbon export. We identify knowledge gaps and discuss how advances in observational platforms, sensors, and models will help to improve our understanding of physical-biological-ecological interactions across scales in WBCs.

Mechanisms of nutrient supply

Nutrient supply to the euphotic zone occurs over a range of scales in WBC systems. The Gulf Stream and the Kuroshio have been shown to act as large-scale subsurface nutrient streams, supporting large lateral transports of nutrients within the upper thermocline (Pelegrí and Csanady 1991; Pelegrí et al. 1996; Guo et al. 2012; Guo et al. 2013). The WBCs are effective in transporting nutrients in part because of their strong volume transports, but also because they support anomalously high subsurface nutrient concentrations compared to adjacent waters along the same isopycnals (Pelegrí and Csanady 1991; Nagai and Clayton 2017; Komatsu and Hiroe pers. comm.). It is likely that the Gulf Stream and Kuroshio nutrient streams originate near the southern boundary of the subtropical gyres (Nagai et al. 2015a). Recent studies have suggested that nutrients in the Gulf Stream originate even farther south in the Southern Ocean (Williams et al. 2006; Sarmiento et al. 2004). These subsurface nutrients can then be supplied to the surface through a range of vertical supply mechanisms, fueling productivity in the WBC regions.

We currently lack a mechanistic understanding of how elevated nutrient levels in these “nutrient streams” are maintained, since mesoscale stirring should act to homogenize them. While it is well understood that the deepening of the mixed layer toward subpolar regions (along nutrient stream pathways) can drive a large-scale induction of nutrients to the surface layer (Williams et al., 2006), the detailed mechanisms driving the vertical supply of these nutrients to the surface layer at synoptic time and space scales remain unclear. Recent studies focusing on the oceanic (sub)mesoscale (spatial scales of 1-100 km) are starting to reveal mechanisms driving intermittent vertical exchange of nutrients and organisms in and out of the euphotic zone.

Recent surveys that resolved micro-scale mixing processes in the Kuroshio Extension and the Gulf Stream have reported elevated turbulence in the thermocline, likely a result of near-inertial internal waves (Nagai et al. 2009, 2012, 2015b; Kaneko et al. 2012, Inoue et al. 2010). In the Tokara Strait, upstream of the Kuroshio Extension, where the geostrophic flow passes shallow topography, pronounced turbulent mixing oriented along coherent banded layers below the thermocline was observed and linked to high-vertical wavenumber near-inertial internal waves (Nagai et al. 2017; Tsutsumi et al. 2017). Within the Kuroshio Extension, measurements made by autonomous microstructure floats have revealed vigorous microscale temperature dissipation within and below the Kuroshio thermocline over at least 300 km following the main stream, which was attributed to active double-diffusive convection (Nagai et al. 2015c). Within the surface mixed layer, recent studies have shown that downfront winds over the Kuroshio Extension generate strong turbulent mixing (D’Asaro et al. 2011; Nagai et al. 2012). The influence of fine-scale vertical mixing on nutrient supply was observed during a high-spatial resolution biogeochemical survey across the Kuroshio Extension front, revealing fine-scale “tongues” of elevated nitrate arranged along isopycnals (Figure 1, Clayton et al. 2014). Subsequent modeling work has shown that these nutrient tongues are ubiquitous features along the southern flank of the Kuroshio Extension front, formed by submesoscale surface mixed layer fronts (Nagai and Clayton 2017).

Microscale turbulence, double-diffusive convection, and submesoscale stirring are all processes associated with meso- and submesoscale fronts. The results from the studies mentioned above support the hypothesis that WBCs are an efficient conduit for transporting nutrients, not only over large scales but also more locally on fine scales, as isopycnal transporters, lateral stirrers, and diapycnal suppliers. It is the sum of these transport processes that ultimately fuels the elevated primary production observed in these regions.

Figure 1. Vertical sections of nitrate (μM) observed across the Kuroshio Extension in October 2009. The panels are organized such that they line up with respect to the density structure of the Kuroshio Extension Front. Cyan contour lines show the mixed layer depth (taken from Nagai and Clayton 2017).

Phytoplankton biomass, community structure, and dynamics

WBCs separate regions with markedly different biogeochemical and ecological characteristics. Subpolar gyres are productive, highly seasonal, tend to support ecosystems with higher phytoplankton biomass, and can be dominated by large phytoplankton and zooplankton taxa. Conversely, subtropical gyres are mostly oligotrophic, support lower photoautotrophic biomass, and are not characterized by a strong seasonal cycle. In turn, these subtropical regions tend to support ecosystems that comprise smaller cells and a tightly coupled microbial loop. As boundaries to these diverse regions, WBCs are the main conduit linking the equatorial and polar oceans and their resident plankton communities. Within the frontal zones, mesoscale dynamics act to stir water masses together and can transport ecosystems across the WBC into regions of markedly different physical and biological characteristics. Furthermore, mesoscale eddies can modulate vertical fluxes via the displacement of ispycnals during eddy intensification or eddy-induced Ekman pumping, or generating submesoscale patches of vertical exchange. At these smaller scales, vigorous vertical circulations ¾ with magnitudes reaching 100 m/day ¾ can fertilize the euphotic zone or transport phytoplankton out of the surface layer.

Numerous studies have hypothesized that the combination of large-scale transport, mesoscale stirring and transport, and submesoscale nutrient input leads to both high biodiversity and high population densities. Using remote sensing data, D’Ovidio et al. (2010) showed that mesoscale stirring in the Brazil-Malvinas Confluence Zone brings together communities from very different source regions, driving locally enhanced biodiversity. In a numerical model, in which physical and biological processes can be explicitly separated and quantified, Clayton et al. (2013) showed that high modeled biodiversity in the WBCs was due to a combination of transport and local nutrient enhancements. And finally, in situ taxonomic surveys crossing the Brazil-Malvinas Confluence (Cermeno et al. 2008) and the Kuroshio Extension (Honjo and Okada 1974; Clayton et al, 2017) showed both enhanced biomass and biodiversity associated with the WBC fronts. Beyond these local enhancements, WBCs might play a larger role in setting regional biogeography. Sugie and Suzuki (2017) found a mixture of temperate and subpolar diatom species in the Kuroshio Extension, suggesting that the boundary current might play a key role in setting downstream diatom diversity.

However tantalizing these results are, they remain relatively inconclusive, in part because of their relatively small temporal and spatial scales. Extending existing approaches for assessing phytoplankton community structure, leveraging emerging ‘omics and continuous sampling techniques, larger regions might be surveyed at high taxonomic and spatial resolution. Combining genomic and transcriptomic observations would provide measures of both organism abundance and activity (Hunt et al. 2013), as well as the potential to better define the relative roles of growth and loss processes. With genetically resolved data and appropriate survey strategies, it will be possible to conclusively determine the presence of these biodiversity hotspots. A better characterization and deeper understanding of these regions will provide insight into the long-term and large-scale biodiversity, stability, and function of the global planktonic ecosystem.

Organic carbon export via physical and biological processes

Export, the removal of fixed carbon from the surface ocean, is driven by gravitational particle sinking, active transport, and (sub)mesoscale processes such as eddy-driven subduction. While evidence suggests that WBCs are likely hot spots of biological (Siegel et al. 2014; Honda et al. 2017a) and physical (Omand et al. 2015) export fluxes out of the euphotic zone, only a small handful of studies have explored this. Recent results from sediment trap studies at the Kuroshio Extension Observatory (KEO) mooring, located just south of the Kuroshio Extension, suggest that there is a link between the passage of mesoscale eddies and carbon export (Honda et al. 2017b). They observed that high export events at 5000 m lagged behind the passage of negative (cyclonic) sea surface height anomalies (SSHA) at the mooring by one to two months (Figure 2). In other regions, underway measurements (Stanley et al. 2010) and optical sensors on autonomous platforms (Briggs et al. 2011; Estapa et al. 2013; Estapa et al. 2015; Bishop et al. 2016) have revealed large episodicity in export proxies over timescales of hours to days and spatial scales of 1-10 km.

Figure 2. Time series of ocean temperature in the upper ~550 m (less than 550 dbar) at station KEO between July 2014 and June 2016. The daily data shown in the figure are available on the KEO database. White contour lines show the temporal variability in the daily satellite-based sea surface height anomaly (SSHA). White open bars show the total mass flux (TMF) observed by the time series sediment trap at 5000 m (based on a figure in Honda et al. 2017b).

Another avenue of carbon export from the surface ocean results from grazing and vertical migration. Vertically migrating zooplankton feed near the surface in the dark and evade predation at depth during the day. Fronts generated by WBCs produce gradients in zooplankton communities, both in terms of grazer biomass and species compositions (e.g., Wiebe and Flierl, 1983), and influence the extent and magnitude of diel vertical migrations. Submesoscale variability in zooplankton abundance can be observed readily in echograms collected by active acoustic sensors, but submesoscale variability in zooplankton community structure and dynamics remains difficult to measure. Thus, the nature of this variability remains largely unknown.

Future research directions

Building a better understanding of how physical and biogeochemical dynamics in WBC regions interact relies on observing these systems at the appropriate scales. This is particularly challenging because of the range of scales at play in these systems and the limitation of existing in situ and remote observing platforms and techniques. As has been outlined above, the ecological and biogeochemical environment of WBCs is the result of long range transport from the flanking subtropical and subpolar gyres, as well as local modification by meso- and submesocale physical dynamics in these frontal systems.

Another challenge in disentangling the relationships between physical and biogeochemical processes in WBCs is the difficulty in measuring rates rather than standing stocks. In such dynamic systems, lags in biological responses mean that the changes in standing stocks may not be collocated with the physical process forcing them. Small-scale lateral stirring spatially and temporally decouples net community production and export while secondary circulations contribute to vertical transport. As much as possible, future process studies should include approaches that can explicitly quantify biological rates and physical transport pathways. New platforms are beginning to fill these observational gaps: BGC-Argo floats, autonomous platforms (e.g., Saildrone), high-frequency underway measurements, and continuous cytometers (including imaging cytometers) are all capable of generating high-spatial resolution datasets of biological and chemical properties over large regions. Gliders and profiling platforms (e.g., WireWalker) are making it possible to measure vertical profiles of biogeochemical properties at high frequency. Operating within a Lagrangian framework, while resolving lateral gradients of physical and biogeochemical tracers with ships or autonomous vehicles, may someday allow us to quantitatively partition the observed small-scale variability in biogeochemical tracers between that attributable to biological or physical processes.

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An autonomous approach to monitoring coral reef health

Posted by mmaheigan

· Thursday, July 20th, 2017

Coral reefs are diverse, productive ecosystems that are highly vulnerable to changing ocean conditions such as acidification and warming. Coral reef metabolism—in particular the fundamental ecosystem properties of net community production (NCP; the balance of photosynthesis and respiration) and net community calcification (NCC; the balance of calcification and dissolution)—has been proposed as a proxy for reef health. NCC is of particular interest, since ocean acidification is expected to have detrimental effects on reef calcification.

Traditionally, these metabolic rates are quantified through laborious methods that involve discrete sampling, which, due to a limited number of observations, often fails to characterize natural variability on time scales of minutes to days. In a recent paper in JGR, Takeshita et al. (2016) presented the Benthic Ecosystem and Acidification Measurement System (BEAMS), a fully autonomous system that simultaneously measures NCP and NCC at 15-minute intervals over a period of weeks. BEAMS utilizes the gradient flux method to quantify benthic metabolic rates by measuring chemical (pH and O₂) and velocity gradients in the turbulent benthic boundary layer.

Two BEAMS were simultaneously deployed on Palmyra Atoll located approximately one km apart over vastly different benthic communities. One site was a healthy reef with approximately 70% coral cover, and the other was a degraded reef site with only 5% coral cover that was dominated by a non-calcifying invasive corallimorph Rhodactis howesii. Over the course of two weeks, BEAMS collected over 1,000 measurements of NCP and NCC from each site, yielding significantly different ratios of NCP to NCC between the two sites. These initial results suggest that BEAMS is capable of detecting different metabolic states, as well as patterns consistent with degrading reef health.

BEAMS is an exciting new autonomous tool to monitor reef health and study drivers of reef metabolism on timescales ranging from minutes to months (and potentially years). Additionally, autonomous measurement tools increase the potential for widespread and comparable observations across reefs and reef systems. Such knowledge will greatly improve our ability to predict the fate of coral reefs in a changing ocean.

Authors:
Yui Takeshita (Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute)

The changing ocean carbon cycle

Posted by mmaheigan

· Thursday, July 6th, 2017

Since preindustrial times, the ocean has removed from the atmosphere 41% of the carbon emitted by human industrial activities (Figure 1). The globally integrated rate of ocean carbon uptake is increasing in response to rising atmospheric CO₂ levels and is expected to continue this trend for the foreseeable future. However, the inherent uncertainties in ocean surface and interior data associated with ocean carbon uptake processes make it difficult to predict future changes in the ocean carbon sink. In a recent paper, McKinley et al. (2017), review the mechanisms of ocean carbon uptake and its spatiotemporal variability in recent decades. Looking forward, the potential for direct detection of change in the ocean carbon sink, as distinct from interannual variability, is assessed using a climate model large ensemble, a novel approach to studying climate processes with an earth systems model, the “large ensemble.” In a large ensemble, many runs of the same model are done so as to directly distinguish natural variability from long-term trends.

This analysis illustrates that variability in CO₂ flux is large enough to prevent detection of anthropogenic trends in ocean carbon uptake on at least decadal to multi-decadal timescales, depending on location. Earliest detection of trends is most attainable in regions where trends are expected to be largest, such as the Southern Ocean and parts of the North Atlantic and North Pacific. Detection will require sustained observations over many decades, underscoring the importance of traditional ship-based approaches and integration of new autonomous observing platforms as part of a global ocean carbon observing system.

Please see a relevant OCB outreach tool on ocean carbon uptake developed by McKinley and colleagues:
OCB teaching/outreach slide deck Temporal and Spatial Perspectives on the Fate of Anthropogenic Carbon: A Carbon Cycle Slide Deck for Broad Audiences – also download explanatory notes

Funding for the Ocean Carbon & Biogeochemistry Project Office is provided by the National Science Foundation (NSF) and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The OCB Project Office is housed at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.

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