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Krillin’ it with poop: Highlighting the importance of Antarctic krill in ocean carbon and nutrient cycling

Posted by mmaheigan

· Tuesday, February 4th, 2020

Scientists have long known the role of Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba) in Southern Ocean ecosystems. Evidence is gathering about krill’s biogeochemical importance through releasing millions of faecal pellets in swarms and stimulating primary production through nutrient excretion. Here, we explore and synthesise the known impacts that this highly abundant and rather large species has on the environment. Krill exemplify how metazoa can play a dominant role in shaping ocean biogeochemistry, thus providing additional motivation for protecting certain harvested species.

Figure 1: The ecological roles of krill in Southern Ocean biogeochemical cycles, including releasing faecal pellets, excreting nutrients whilst grazing, and larval krill migrating throughout the water column, shedding exoskeletons, and feeding on the seabed.

A review published in Nature Communications uncovers at least 13 possible pathways by which Antarctic krill either influence the carbon sink or release fertilizing nutrients (Figure 1). Their large size (up to 7 cm) and swarming nature (millions of krill aggregate) enable krill to strongly impact ocean biogeochemistry. Swarms release large numbers of faecal pellets, overwhelming detritivores and resulting in a large sink of faecal carbon. Krill may physically mix nutrients from the deep ocean and become a decades-long carbon store in whale biomass. Antarctic krill larvae, which live near the sea-ice, undergo deeper diel vertical migrations compared to adult Antarctic krill (400 m vs. 200 m), so any carbon respired or faecal pellets released by larvae could remain in the deep ocean longer than those released by adult krill at a shallower depth; the larval krill contribution to carbon export has not been quantified. Furthermore, it is currently unknown how many krill larvae are removed from the Antarctic krill fishery as by-catch. Perhaps the biggest challenge in constraining the role of krill (adult and larvae) in biogeochemical cycles is our limited capacity to quantify the abundance and biomass of Antarctic krill, since shipboard sampling methods (nets or acoustics) have limited spatial and temporal coverage. Ultimately, the Southern Ocean is an important physical AND biological sink of carbon, and we must consider the role krill and other animals have in this cycle.

Figure 2: Processes in the biological carbon pump including the sinking of dead phytoplankton aggregates, zooplankton, krill and fish faecal pellets and dead animals. Microbial remineralisation is depicted through the return of particulate organic carbon to dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and eventually carbon dioxide.

Authors:
Emma Cavan (Imperial College London and University of Tasmania)
Anna Belcher (British Antarctic Survey)
Angus Atkinson (Plymouth Marine Laboratory)
Simeon Hill (British Antarctic Survey)
So Kawaguchi (Australian Antarctic Division)
Stacey McCormack (University of Tasmania)
Bettina Meyer (Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research and University of Oldenburg)
Stephen Nicol (University of Tasmania)
Lavenia Ratnarajah (University of Liverpool)
Katrin Schmidt (University of Plymouth)
Deborah Steinberg (Virginia Institute of Marine Science)
Geraint Tarling (British Antarctic Survey)
Philip Boyd (University of Tasmania and Antarctic Climate and Ecosystems Cooperative Research Centre)

A new era of observing the ocean carbonate system

Posted by mmaheigan

· Tuesday, August 6th, 2019

Amidst a backdrop of natural variability, the ocean carbonate system is undergoing a massive anthropogenic change. To capture this anthropogenic signal and differentiate it from natural variability, carbonate observations are needed across a range of spatial and temporal scales (Figure 1), many of which are not captured by traditional oceanographic platforms. A new review of autonomous carbonate observations published in Current Climate Change Reports highlights the development and deployment of pH sensors capable of in situ measurements on autonomous platforms, which represents a major step forward in observing the ocean carbonate system. These sensors have been rigorously field-tested via large-scale deployments on profiling floats in the Southern Ocean (Southern Ocean Carbon and Climate Observations and Modeling, SOCCOM), providing an unprecedented wealth of year-round data that have demonstrated the importance of wintertime outgassing of carbon dioxide in the Southern Ocean.

Figure 1: Observational capabilities and carbonate system processes as a function of time and space. Ocean processes that affect the carbonate system (solid color shapes—labeled in the legend) are depicted as a function of the temporal and spatial scales over which they must be observed to capture important variability and/or long-term change.

Most current autonomous platforms routinely measure only a single carbonate parameter, which then requires an algorithm to estimate a second parameter so that the rest of the carbonate system can be calculated. However, the ongoing development of sensors and systems to measure, rather than estimate, other carbonate parameters may greatly reduce uncertainty in constraining the full carbonate system. It is critical that the community continue to develop and adhere to best practices for calibration and data handling as existing sensors are deployed in increasing numbers and new sensors become available. Expanding autonomous carbonate measurements will increase our understanding of how anthropogenic change impacts natural variability and will provide a means to monitor carbon uptake by the ocean in real-time at high spatial and temporal resolution. This will not only help to understand the mechanisms driving changes in the ocean carbonate system, but will allow new insights in the role of mesoscale processes in regional and global biogeochemical cycles.

Authors:
Seth M. Bushinsky (Princeton University/University of Hawai’i Mānoa)
Yuichiro Takeshita (Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute)
Nancy L. Williams (Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory – NOAA / University of South Florida)

Forecasting air-sea CO2 flux variations several years in advance

Posted by mmaheigan

· Tuesday, July 9th, 2019

Year-to-year changes in the flux of CO₂ between the atmosphere and the ocean impact the global carbon cycle and climate system, and challenge our ability to verify fossil fuel CO₂ emissions. A new study published in Earth System Dynamics suggests that these air-sea CO₂ flux variations are predictable several years in advance.

A novel set of initialized forecasts of past air-sea CO₂ flux from an Earth system model (Figure 1a) confidently predicts year-to-year variations in the globally-integrated flux up to two years in advance. At regional scales, the forecast lead time increases. The predictability of CO₂ flux from the initialized forecast system exceeds that obtained solely from foreknowledge of variations in external forcing (e.g., volcanic eruptions) or a simple persistence forecast (e.g., CO₂ flux this year will be the same as next year). The longest-lasting forecast enhancements are in the subantarctic Southern Ocean and the northern North Atlantic (Figure 1b).

Figure 1: (a) Forecasts of the past evolution of air-sea CO2 flux in the South Pacific using an Earth System model indicate the potential to predict the future evolution of this quantity. (b) In each biome, the maximum forecast lead time in which the initialized forecast of air-sea CO2 flux beats out other forecast methods.

These results are particularly meaningful for those forecasting year-to-year changes in the global carbon budget, especially as these forecasting efforts are blind to the externally-forced variability in advance (i.e., the external forcing of the future is unknown). In this way, forecasts of air-sea CO₂ flux variations can help to inform future predictions of land-air CO₂ flux and atmospheric CO₂ concentration.

Authors:
Nicole Lovenduski (University of Colorado Boulder)
Stephen G. Yeager (National Center for Atmospheric Research)
Keith Lindsay (National Center for Atmospheric Research)
Matthew C. Long (National Center for Atmospheric Research)

See also the OCB Ocean-Atmosphere Interactions: Scoping directions for U.S. research Workshop to be held in October 1-3, 2019

Upwelled hydrothermal Fe stimulates massive phytoplankton blooms in the Southern Ocean

Posted by mmaheigan

· Tuesday, July 9th, 2019

Joint feature with GEOTRACES

Figure 1a: Southern Ocean phytoplankton blooms showing distribution, biomass (circle size) and type (color key).

In a recent study, Ardyna et al combined observations of profiling floats with historical trace element data and satellite altimetry and ocean color data from the Southern Ocean to reveal that dissolved iron of hydrothermal origin can be upwelled to the surface. Furthermore, the activity of deep hydrothermal sources can influence upper ocean biogeochemical cycles of the Southern Ocean, and in particular stimulate the biological carbon pump.

Authors:
Mathieu Ardyna
Léo Lacour
Sara Sergi
Francesco d’Ovidio
Jean-Baptiste Sallée
Mathieu Rembauville
Stéphane Blain
Alessandro Tagliabue
Reiner Schlitzer
Catherine Jeandel
Kevin Robert Arrigo
Hervé Claustre

Suddenly shallow: A new aragonite saturation horizon will soon emerge in the Southern Ocean

Posted by mmaheigan

· Monday, May 27th, 2019

Earth System Models (ESMs) project that by the end of this century, the aragonite saturation horizon (the boundary between shallower, saturated waters and deeper, undersaturated waters that are corrosive to aragonitic shells) will shoal all the way to the surface in the Southern Ocean, yet the temporal evolution of the horizon has not been studied in much detail. Rather than a gradual shoaling, a new shallow aragonite saturation horizon emerges suddenly across many locations in the Southern Ocean between now and the end of the century (Figure 1, left), as detailed in a new study published in Nature Climate Change.

Figure 1: Maximum step-change in the depth of the aragonite saturation horizon (left), timing of the step-change (center), and cause of the change (right). Xs on the time axis (center) indicate when the shallow horizon emerges in each ensemble member. (click image to enlarge)

The emergence of the shallow aragonite saturation horizon is apparent in each member of an ensemble of climate projections from an ESM, but the step change occurs during different years (Figure 1, center). The shoaling is driven by the gradual accumulation of anthropogenic CO₂ in the Southern Ocean thermocline, where the carbonate ion concentration exhibits a local minimum and approaches undersaturation (Figure 1, right).

The abrupt shoaling of the Southern Ocean aragonite saturation horizon occurs under both business-as-usual and emission-stabilizing scenarios, indicating an inevitable and sudden decrease in the volume of suitable habitat for aragonitic organisms such as shelled pteropods, foraminifers, cold-water corals, sea urchins, molluscs, and coralline algae. Widespread reductions in these habitats may have far-reaching consequences for fisheries, economies, and livelihoods.

Authors:
Gabriela Negrete-García (Scripps Institution of Oceanography)
Nicole Lovenduski (University of Colorado Boulder)

See also OCB2019 plenary session: Carbon cycle feedbacks from the seafloor (Wednesday, June 26, 2019)

Antarctic Ocean CO2 helped end the ice age

Posted by mmaheigan

· Tuesday, April 2nd, 2019

Many scientists have long hypothesized that the ocean around Antarctica was responsible for changing CO₂ levels during ice ages, but lacked definitive evidence. A new study in Nature provides the most direct evidence of this process to date and provides crucial evidence of the mechanisms—including changing sea ice cover and bipolar seesaw (warming in the Southern Hemisphere during cooling in the Northern Hemisphere) events—that controlled CO₂ and climate during the ice ages.

Using samples of fossil deep-sea corals collected from 1000 m in the Drake Passage (Figure 1a), the authors were able to reconstruct the CO₂ content of the deep ocean. They found that the deep ocean CO₂ record was the “mirror image” of CO₂ in the atmosphere (Figure 1b), with the ocean storing CO₂ during an ice age and releasing it back to the atmosphere during deglaciation. CO₂ rise during the last ice age occurred in a series of steps and jumps associated with intervals of rapid climate change.

As well as helping scientists better understand the ice ages, the new findings also provide context to current CO₂ rise and climate change. Although the CO₂ rise that helped end the last ice age was dramatic in geological terms, CO₂ rise due to human activity over the last 100 years is even larger and about 100 times faster. CO₂ rise at the end of the ice age helped drive major melting of ice sheets resulting in sea level rise of >100 meters. These results bolster the idea that if we want to prevent dangerous levels of global warming and sea level rise in the future, we need to reduce CO₂ emissions as quickly as possible

Authors:
J. W. B. Rae (University of St Andrews, UK)
A. Burke (University of St Andrews, UK)
L. F. Robinson (University of Bristol, UK)
J. F. Adkins (California Institute of Technology)
T. Chen (University of Bristol, UK, Nanjing University, China)
C. Cole (University of St Andrews, UK)
R. Greenop (University of St Andrews, UK)
T. Li (University of Bristol, UK, Nanjing University, China)
E. F. M. Littley (University of St Andrews, UK)
D. C. Nita (University of St Andrews, UK, Babes-Bolyai University, Romania)
J. A. Stewart (University of St Andrews, UK, University of Bristol, UK)
B. J. Taylor (University of St Andrews, UK)

A half century perspective: Seasonal productivity and particulates in the Ross Sea

Posted by mmaheigan

· Tuesday, April 2nd, 2019

Studies of cruise observations in the Ross Sea are typically biased to a single or a few year(s), and long-term trends have predominantly come from satellites. Consequently, the in situ climatological patterns of nutrients and particulate matter have remained vague and unclear. What are the typical patterns of nutrients and particulate matter concentrations in the Ross Sea in spring and summer? How do these concentrations affect annual productivity estimates?

Patterns of nutrient and particulate matter in the Ross Sea can play a wide-ranging role in a productive region like the Ross Sea. Smith and Kaufman (2018) recently synthesized austral spring and summer (November to February) observations from 42 Ross Sea research cruises (1967-2016) to analyze broad biogeochemical patterns. The resulting climatologies revealed interesting seasonal patterns of nutrient uptake and particulate organic carbon (POC) to chlorophyll (chl) ratios (POC:chl). Temporal patterns in the nitrate and phosphate climatologies confirm the role of early spring haptophyte (Phaeocystis antarctica) growth, followed by limited nitrogen and phosphorus removal in summer. However, a notable increase in POC occurred later in summer that was largely independent of chlorophyll changes, resulting in a dramatic increase in POC:chl. A gradual decline in silicic acid concentrations throughout the summer, along with an increased occurrence of biogenic silica during this time suggest that diatoms may be responsible for this later POC spike. Revised estimates of primary productivity based on these observed climatological POC:chl ratios suggests that summer blooms may be a significant contributor to seasonal productivity, and that estimates of productivity based on satellite pigments underestimate annual production by at least 70% (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Bio-optical estimates of mean productivity using a constant POC:chl ratio (black dots and lines) and modified estimates of productivity using the monthly climatological POC:chl ratios (red dots and lines), in a) the Ross Sea polynya region and b) the western Ross Sea region.

By clarifying typical seasonal patterns of nutrient uptake and POC:chl, these climatologies underscore the biogeochemical importance of both spring haptophyte growth and previously underestimated summer diatom growth in the Ross Sea. Further investigation of the causes and consequences of elevated summer ratios is needed, as assessments of regional food webs and biogeochemical cycles depend on more accurate understanding of primary productivity patterns. Likewise, these results highlight the need for continued efforts to constrain satellite productivity estimates in the Ross Sea using in situ constituent ratios.

For other relevant work on seasonal biogeochemical patterns in the Ross Sea, please see https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr2.2003.07.010. And for intra-seasonal estimates of particulate organic carbon to chlorophyll using gliders, please see: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr.2014.06.011.

Authors:
Walker O. Smith Jr. (VIMS, College of William and Mary)
Daniel E. Kaufman (VIMS, College of William and Mary; now at Chesapeake Research Consortium)

Pteropod populations stable or increasing according to long-term study along the Western Antarctic Peninsula

Posted by mmaheigan

· Thursday, March 21st, 2019

Shelled pteropods (pelagic snails) are abundant planktonic predators and prey, linking grazers and higher trophic levels and contributing to the carbon cycle via consumption and excretion. Pteropods have been heralded as bioindicators of ocean acidification, given their aragonitic shell’s susceptibility to dissolution, which could ultimately lead to declining abundance. However, pteropod population dynamics are understudied, particularly in the Southern Ocean, a region predicted to be highly impacted by both warming and ocean acidification. In a recent publication in Limnology and Oceanography, long-term data sets from the Western Antarctic Peninsula show that while there is considerable interannual variability in pteropod abundance, populations have remained stable over the past 25 years, with some pteropod species (gymnosomes (non-shelled pteropod) overall, L. antarctica and C. pyramidata (shelled pteropods) regionally) even increasing during this period (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Annual pteropod abundance anomalies for the entire Palmer Antarctica Long-Term Ecological Research (LTER) study region along the Western Antarctic Peninsula. (a) Limacina helicina antarctica (shelled pteropod), (b) Gymnosomes – nonshelled pteropods that prey on shelled pteropods (p = 0.007, r² = 0.27), and (c) Clio pyramidata (shelled pteropod). Effect of environment on pteropod abundance. (d) SST vs. L. antarctica abundance, e) Sea ice advance vs. L. antarctica and Gymnosome abundance, (f) Sea ice retreat vs. C. pyramidata abundance. Data plotted are annual anomalies for each year of the time series (1993–2017). Sea ice advance is lagged 2-yr behind pteropod abundance (e.g., 2017 pteropod annual anomaly is plotted against 2015 sea ice advance annual anomaly) SST are lagged 1-yr behind L. antarctica abundance (e.g., 2017 L. antarctica annual anomaly is plotted against 2016 SST). Regression lines for significant linear relationships are shown, regression statistics are as follows: (d) SST vs. L. antarctica (circles): n = 25, p = 0.006, r² = 0.25 (e) sea ice advance vs. L. antarctica (filled-circles) and Gymnosomes (empty-circles): n = 25, p = 0.003, r² = 0.30 (dashed line); (f) sea ice retreat vs. C. pyramidata (squares): n = 14, p = 0.0003, r² = 0.64.

There was no significant influence of carbonate chemistry parameters (e.g., aragonite saturation state) on pteropod abundance, since the Western Antarctic Peninsula has yet to experience prolonged conditions characteristic of ocean acidification. However, other environmental factors such as warming and associated sea ice retreat were more influential. For example, warmer, ice-free waters in one year typically led to higher pteropod abundances the following year, suggesting that pteropods may be better adapted than expected to warming conditions due to climate change. The authors propose that earlier sea ice retreat promotes recruitment and subsequent expansion of pteropods further South, which could explain their increased abundance in this subregion. These results increase our understanding of pteropod responses to environmental variability, which is important for predicting future effects of climate change on regional carbon cycling and plankton trophic interactions in the Southern Ocean.

Authors:
Patricia S. Thibodeau (VIMS)
Deborah K. Steinberg (VIMS)
Sharon E. Stammerjohn (University of Colorado at Boulder)
Claudine Hauri (University of Alaska Fairbanks)

Dust-borne iron in the Southern Ocean was more bioavailable during glacial periods

Posted by mmaheigan

· Wednesday, January 23rd, 2019

The Southern Ocean is iron (Fe)-limited, and increased fluxes of dust-borne Fe to the Southern Ocean during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) have been associated with phytoplankton growth and CO₂ drawdown. Dust contains different mixes of Fe-bearing minerals, depending on the source region. Fe(II) silicate minerals from physical weathering are more bioavailable than Fe(III) oxyhydroxide minerals from chemical weathering. The Fe(II) silicates are dominant in dust sources that have been weathered from bedrock by glaciers in Patagonia, but the impact of glacial activity on dust-borne Fe speciation (Fe oxidation state and mineral composition) and bioavailability over the last glacial cycle has not previously been quantified.

Figure 1. The fraction of Fe(II) in dust (Fe(II)/Fetotal, dominated by Fe(II) silicates, shown as blue dots connected with dotted lines on blue axes) in marine sediment cores from (A) the South Atlantic and (B) the South Pacific plotted with the total dust flux (grey lines on grey axes).

A recent study in PNAS reconstructs the speciation of dust-borne Fe over the last glacial cycle in South Atlantic and South Pacific marine sediment cores using Fe K-edge X-ray absorption spectroscopy. The authors observed that the highly bioavailable Fe(II) silicate content of dust-borne Fe is higher in both regions during cold glacial periods, suggesting that a given flux of Fe is more bioavailable in glacial versus interglacial periods (Figure 1). Therefore, all Fe cannot be considered equal in biogeochemical models working on glacial-interglacial timescales. The bioavailability of a given flux of Fe at the LGM was likely a dominant driver of phytoplankton growth, with more bioavailable Fe driving increased phytoplankton activity and associated atmospheric CO₂ drawdown and subsequent cooling. The observed association between glacial periods and increased Fe bioavailability in the Southern Ocean may indicate an important positive feedback mechanism between glacial activity and cold glacial temperatures through Fe speciation and the efficiency of the biological pump.

Paper link: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1809755115

Authors:
Elizabeth M. Shoenfelt (Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, Columbia University)
Gisela Winckler (Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, Columbia University)
Frank Lamy (Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research)
Robert F. Anderson (Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, Columbia University)
Benjamin C. Bostick (Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, Columbia University)

The past, present, and future of artificial ocean iron fertilization experiments

Posted by mmaheigan

· Wednesday, January 23rd, 2019

Since the beginning of the industrial revolution, human activities have greatly increased atmospheric CO₂ concentrations, leading to global warming and indicating an urgent need to reduce global greenhouse gas emissions. The Martin (or iron) hypothesis suggests that ocean iron fertilization (OIF) could be a low-cost effective method for reducing atmospheric CO₂ levels by stimulating carbon sequestration via the biological pump in iron-limited, high-nutrient, low-chlorophyll (HNLC) ocean regions. Given increasing global political, social, and economic concerns associated with climate change, it is necessary to examine the validity and usefulness of artificial OIF (aOIF) experimentation as a geoengineering solution.

Figure 1. (a) Global annual distribution of surface chlorophyll concentrations (mg m^-3) with locations of 13 aOIF experiments. Maximum and initial values in (b) maximum quantum yield of photosynthesis (Fv/Fm ratios) and (c) chlorophyll-a concentrations (mg m^-3) during aOIF experiments. (d) Changes in primary productivity (ΔPP = [PP]_{post-fertilization (postf)} ‒ [PP]_{pre-fertilization (pref)}; mg C m^-2 d^-1). (e) Distributions of chlorophyll-a concentrations (mg m^-3) on day 24 after iron addition in the Southern Ocean iron experiment-north (SOFeX-N) from MODIS Terra Level-2 daily image and on day 20 in the SOFeX-south (SOFeX-S) from SeaWiFS Level-2 daily image (white dotted box indicates phytoplankton bloom during aOIF experiments). (f) Changes in nitrate concentrations (ΔNO₃^– = [NO₃^–]_postf ‒ [NO₃^–]_pref; μM). (g) Changes in partial pressure of CO₂ (ΔpCO₂ = [pCO₂]_postf ‒ [pCO₂]_pref; μatm). The color bar indicates changes in dissolved inorganic carbon (ΔDIC = [DIC]_postf ‒ [DIC]_pref; μM). The numbers on the X axis indicate the order of aOIF experiments as given in Figure 1a and are grouped according to ocean basins; Equatorial Pacific (EP) (yellow bar), Southern Ocean (SO) (blue bar), subarctic North Pacific (NP) (red bar), and subtropical North Atlantic (NA) (green bar).

A review paper published in Biogeosciences on aOIF experiments provides a thorough overview of 13 scientific artificial OIF experiments conducted in HNLC regions over the last 25 years. These aOIF experiments have demonstrated that iron addition stimulates substantial increases in phytoplankton biomass and primary production, resulting in drawdown of macro-nutrients and dissolved inorganic carbon (Figure 1). Many of the aOIF experiments have also precipitated community shifts from smaller (pico- and nano-) to larger (micro) phytoplankton. However, the impact on the net transfer of CO₂ from the atmosphere to below the winter mixed layer via the biological pump is not yet fully understood or quantified and appears to vary with environmental conditions, export flux measurement techniques, and other unknown factors. These results, including possible side effects, have been debated among those who support and oppose aOIF experimentation, and many questions remain about the effectiveness of scientific aOIF, possible side effects, and international aOIF law frameworks. Therefore, it is important to continue undertaking small-scale, scientifically controlled studies to better understand natural processes in the HNLC regions, assess the associated risks, and lay the groundwork for evaluating the potential effectiveness and impacts of large-scale aOIF as a geoengineering solution to anthropogenic climate change. Additionally, this paper suggests considerations for the design of future aOIF experiments to maximize the effectiveness of the technique and begin to answer open questions under international aOIF regulations.

Authors:
Joo-Eun Yoon (Incheon National University)
Il-Nam Kim (Incheon National University)
Alison M. Macdonald (Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution)

Funding for the Ocean Carbon & Biogeochemistry Project Office is provided by the National Science Foundation (NSF) and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The OCB Project Office is housed at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.

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