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Contrasting N2O fluxes of source vs. sink in western Arctic Ocean during summer 2017

Posted by mmaheigan

· Wednesday, October 20th, 2021

During the western Arctic summer season both physical and biogeochemical features differ with latitude between the Bering Strait and Chukchi Borderland. The southern region (Bering Strait to the Chukchi Shelf) is relatively warm, saline, and eutrophic, due to the intrusion of Pacific waters that bring heat and nutrients in to the western Arctic Ocean (WAO). Because of the Pacific influence, the WAO is one of the most productive stretches of ocean in the world. In contrast, the northern region (Chukchi Borderland to the Canada Basin) is primarily influenced by freshwater originating from sea ice melt and rivers, and is relatively cold, fresh, and oligotrophic. A frontal zone exists between the southern region and northern region (~73°N) due to the distinct physicochemical contrast between mixing Pacific waters and freshwater. These regions support distinct bacterial communities also, making the environmental variations drivers extremely relevant to nitrous oxide (N₂O) dynamics.

A recent study published in Scientific Reports examined the role of the WAO as a source and a sink of atmospheric N₂O. There are obvious differences in N₂O fluxes between southern Chukchi Sea (SC) and northern Chukchi Sea (NC). In the SC (Pacific water characteristics dominate) N₂O emissions act as a net source to the atmosphere (Figure 1a). In the NC (freshwater dominant) absorption of atmospheric N₂O into the water column suggests that this region acts as a net sink (Figure 1a). The positive fluxes of SC occurred with relatively high sea surface temperature (SST), sea surface salinity (SSS), and biogeochemically-derived N₂O production, whereas the negative fluxes of NC were associated with relatively low SST, SSS, and little N₂O production. These linear relationships between N₂O fluxes and environmental variables suggest that summer WAO N₂O fluxes are remarkably sensitive to environmental changes.

Figure 1. (a) Map of the sampling stations using the Ice Breaking R/V Araon during August 2017. The sampling locations were coloured with N2O fluxes (blue to red gradient, see color bar; sink, air → sea (−), and source, sea → air (+). The southern Chukchi Sea (SC) extends from Bering Strait to Chukchi Shelf and the northern Chukchi Sea (NC) extends from Chukchi Borderland and Canada Basin. The frontal zone arises between SC and NC (black dotted line). (b) Illustration showing future changes in the distribution of the WAO N2O flux constrained by the positive feedback scenario of increasing inflow of Pacific waters and rapidly declining sea-ice extent under accelerating Arctic warming.

This study suggests a potential scenario for future WAO changes in terms of accelerating Arctic change. Increasing inflow of the Pacific waters and rapidly declining sea-ice extent are critical. The increasing inflow of warm nutrient-enriched Pacific waters will likely extend the SC N₂O source region northward, increasing productivity, and thereby intensifying nitrification. All of which would lead to a strengthening of the WAO’s role as an N₂O source. A rapid loss of the sea ice extent could ultimately lead to a sea-ice-free NC, and again, a northward shift, which would result in a diminished role of the NC as an N₂O sink (Figure 1b). While improving our understanding of WAO N₂O dynamics, this study suggests both a direction for future work and a clear need for a longer-term study to answer questions about both seasonal variations in these dynamics and possible interannual to climatological trends.

Authors:
Jang-Mu Heo (Department of Marine Science, Incheon National University)
Sang-Min Eom (Department of Marine Science, Incheon National University)
Alison M. Macdonald (Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution)
Hyo-Ryeon Kim (Department of Marine Science, Incheon National University)
Joo-Eun Yoon (Department of Marine Science, Incheon National University)
Il-Nam Kim (Department of Marine Science, Incheon National University)

The ephemeral and elusive COVID blip in ocean carbon

Posted by mmaheigan

· Monday, September 20th, 2021

The global pandemic of the last nearly two years has affected all of us on a daily and long-term basis. Our planet is not exempt from these impacts. Can we see a signal of COVID-related CO₂ emissions reductions in the ocean? In a recent study, Lovenduski et al. apply detection and attribution analysis to output from an ensemble of COVID-like simulations of an Earth system model to answer this question. While it is nearly impossible to detect a COVID-related change in ocean pH, the model produces a unique fingerprint in air-sea DpCO₂ that is attributable to COVID. Challengingly, the large interannual variability in the climate system makes this fingerprint difficult to detect at open ocean buoy sites.

This study highlights the challenges associated with detecting statistically meaningful changes in ocean carbon and acidity following CO₂ emissions reductions, and reminds the reader that it may be difficult to observe intentional emissions reductions — such as those that we may enact to meet the Paris Climate Agreement – in the ocean carbon system.

Figure caption: The fingerprint (pink line) of COVID-related CO2 emissions reductions in global-mean surface ocean pH and air-sea DpCO2, as estimated by an ensemble of COVID-like simulations in an Earth system model. While the pH fingerprint is not particularly exciting, the air-sea DpCO2 fingerprint displays a temporary weakening of the ocean carbon sink in 2021 due to COVID emissions reductions.

Authors:
Nikki Lovenduski (University of Colorado Boulder)
Neil Swart (Canadian Centre for Climate Modeling and Analysis)
Adrienne Sutton (NOAA Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory)
John Fyfe (Canadian Centre for Climate Modeling and Analysis)
Galen McKinley (Columbia University and Lamont Doherty Earth Observatory)
Chris Sabine (University of Hawai’i at Manoa)
Nancy Williams (University of South Florida)

Exploiting phytoplankton as a biosensor for nutrient limitation

Posted by mmaheigan

· Wednesday, September 15th, 2021

In the surface ocean, phytoplankton growth is often limited by a scarcity of key nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and iron. While this is important, there are methodological and conceptual difficulties in characterizing these nutrient limitations.

A recent paper published in Science Magazine leveraged a global metagenomic dataset from Bio-GO-SHIP to address these challenges. The authors characterized the abundance of genes that confer adaptations to nutrient limitation within the picocyanobacteria Prochlorococcus. Using the relative abundance of these genes as an indicator of nutrient limitation allowed the authors to capture expected regions of nutrient limitation, and novel regions that had not previously been studied. This gene-derived indicator of nutrient limitation matched previous methods of assessing nutrient limitation, such as bottle incubation experiments.

These findings have important implications for the global ocean. Characterizing the impact of nutrient limitation on primary production is especially critical in light of future stratification driven by climate change. In addition, this novel methodological approach allows scientists to use microbial communities as an eco-genomic biosensor of adaptation to changing nutrient regimes. For instance, future studies of coastal microbes or other ecosystems may help communities and environmental managers better understand how local microbial populations are adapting to climate change.

Watch an illustrated video overview of this research

Authors:
Lucas J. Ustick, Alyse A. Larkin, Catherine A. Garcia, Nathan S. Garcia, Melissa L. Brock, Jenna A. Lee, Nicola A. Wiseman, J. Keith Moore, Adam C. Martiny
(all University of California, Irvine)

How atmospheric and oceanographic forcing impact the carbon sequestration in an ultra-oligotrophic marine system

Posted by mmaheigan

· Wednesday, August 11th, 2021

Sinking particles are a critical conduit for the export of material from the surface to the deep ocean. Despite their importance in oceanic carbon cycling, little is known about the composition and seasonal variability of sinking particles which reach abyssal depths. Oligotrophic waters cover ~75% of the ocean surface and contribute over 30% of the global marine carbon fixation. Understanding the processes that control carbon export to the deep oligotrophic areas is crucial to better characterize the strength and efficiency of the biological pump as well as to project the response of these systems to climate fluctuations and anthropogenic perturbations.

In a recent study published in Frontiers in Earth Science, authors synthesized data from atmospheric and oceanographic parameters, together with main mass components, and stable isotope and source-specific lipid biomarker composition of sinking particles collected in the deep Eastern Mediterranean Sea (4285m, Ierapetra Basin) for a three-year period (June 2010-June 2013). In addition, this study compared the sinking particulate flux data with previously reported deep-sea surface sediments from the study area to shed light on the benthic–pelagic coupling.

Figure Caption: a) Biplot of net primary productivity vs export efficiency (top and bottom horizontal dashed lines indicate threshold for high and low export efficiency regimes). b) Biplot of POC-normalized concentrations of terrestrial vs. phytoplankton-derived lipid biomarkers of the sinking particles collected in the deep Eastern Mediterranean Sea (Ierapetra Basin, NW Levantine Basin) from June 2010–June 2013, and surface sediments collected from January 2007 to June 2012 in the study area.

Both seasonal and episodic pulses are crucial for POC export to the deep Eastern Mediterranean Sea. POC fluxes peaked in spring April–May 2012 (12.2 mg m⁻² d⁻¹) related with extreme atmospheric forcing. Overall, summer particle export fuels more efficient carbon sequestration than the other seasons. The results of this study highlight that the combination of extreme weather events and aerosol deposition can trigger an influx of both marine labile carbon and anthropogenic compounds to the deep. Finally, the comparison of the sinking particles flux data with surface sediments revealed an isotopic discrimination, as well as a preferential degradation of labile organic matter during deposition and burial, along with higher preservation of land-derived POC in the underlying sediments. This study provides key knowledge to better understand the export, fate and preservation vs. degradation of organic carbon, and for modeling the organic carbon burial rates in the Mediterranean Sea.

Authors:
Rut Pedrosa-Pamies (The Ecosystems Center, Marine Biological Laboratory, US; Research Group in Marine Geosciences, University of Barcelona, Spain)
Constantine Parinos (Institute of Oceanography, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research, Greece)
Anna Sanchez-Vidal (Group in Marine Geosciences, University of Barcelona, Spain)
Antoni Calafat (Group in Marine Geosciences, University of Barcelona, Spain)
Miquel Canals (Group in Marine Geosciences, University of Barcelona, Spain)
Dimitris Velaoras (Institute of Oceanography, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research, Greece)
Nikolaos Mihalopoulos (Environmental Chemical Processes Laboratory, University of Crete; National Observatory of Athens, Greece)
Maria Kanakidou (Environmental Chemical Processes Laboratory, University of Crete Greece)
Nikolaos Lampadariou (Institute of Oceanography, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research, Greece)
Alexandra Gogou (Institute of Oceanography, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research, Greece)

Air-sea gas disequilibrium drove deoxygenation of the deep ice-age ocean

Posted by mmaheigan

· Thursday, March 18th, 2021

During the Last Glacial Maximum (~20,000 years ago, LGM) sediment data show that the deep ocean had lower dissolved oxygen (O₂) concentrations than the preindustrial ocean, despite cooler temperatures of this period increasing O₂ solubility in sea water.

Figure 1. a) Whole ocean inventory of the O₂ components in the preindustrial control (PIC): total O₂ (O₂); the preformed components equilibrium O₂ (O₂ equilibrium), physical disequilibrium O₂ (O₂ diseq phys) and biologically-mediated disequilibrium (O₂ diseq bio); and O₂ respired from soft-tissue (O₂ soft). b) The difference in whole ocean inventory of O₂ components between the LGM and PIC simulations.

In a study published in Nature Geoscience, the authors provide one of the first explanations for glacial deoxygenation. The authors combined a data-constrained model of the preindustrial (PIC) and LGM ocean with a novel decomposition of O₂ to assess the processes affecting the oceanic distribution of oxygen. The decomposition allowed for the preformed disequilibrium O₂—the amount of oxygen that deviates from its solubility equilibrium value when at the surface—to be tracked, along with other contributions such as the O₂ consumed by bacterial respiration of organic matter. In the preindustrial ocean, a third of the subsurface oxygen deficit was a result of disequilibrium rather than oxygen consumed by bacteria. This contradicts previous assumptions (Figure 1a). Nearly 80% of the disequilibrium resulted from upwelling waters, depleted in O₂ due to respiration, not fully equilibrating before re-subduction into the ocean interior. This effect was even greater during the LGM (Figure 1b). The authors attributed this largely to the widespread presence of sea ice—which acts as a cap on the surface preventing the water from gaining oxygen from the atmosphere—in the ocean around Antarctica, with a smaller contribution from iron fertilization.

This study provides one of the first mechanistic explanations for LGM deep ocean deoxygenation. As the ocean is currently losing oxygen due to warming, the effect of other processes, including sea ice changes, could prove important for understanding long-term ocean oxygenation changes.

Authors
Ellen Cliff (University of Oxford)
Samar Khatiwala (University of Oxford)
Andreas Schmittner (Oregon State University)

Joint highlight with GEOTRACES International Project Office

Wildfire impacts on coastal ocean phytoplankton

Posted by mmaheigan

· Wednesday, February 24th, 2021

Wildfire frequency, size, and destructiveness has increased over the last two decades, particularly in coastal regions such as Australia, Brazil, and the western United States. While the impact of fire on land, plants, and people is well documented, very few studies have been able to evaluate the impact of fires on ocean ecosystems. A serendipitously planned research cruise one week after the Thomas Fire broke out in California in December 2017 allowed the authors of this study and their colleagues to sample the adjacent Santa Barbara Channel during this devastating extreme fire event.

In a recent paper published in Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, the authors describe the phytoplankton community in the Santa Barbara Channel during the Thomas Fire. Phytoplankton community composition was described using a combination of images of phytoplankton from the Imaging FlowCytobot (McLane Labs) and phytoplankton pigments. Dinoflagellates were the dominant phytoplankton group in the surface ocean during the Thomas Fire, according to both methods (Figure 1).

Figure 1. (A) The fraction of total particle volume imaged by the Imaging FlowCytobot (IFCB) comprised of phytoplankton (green) and detritus (brown). Example IFCB images of ash (counted as part of detritus) particles are outlined in brown. (B) The phytoplankton fraction is then further divided by taxonomy, showing the abundance of nano-sized phytoplankton and especially dinoflagellates during the week of sampling. Example IFCB images of Gonyaulax (outlined in dark green), Prorocentrum (outlined in light green), and Umbilicosphaera (outlined in purple) cells are also shown.

While this study was not able to demonstrate a causal relationship between the Thomas Fire and the presence of dinoflagellates, this result is quite different from previous winters in the Santa Barbara Channel, when picophytoplankton and diatoms typically dominate the winter community. The incidence of dinoflagellates in the Santa Barbara Channel in December 2017 was correlated with the warmer-than-average water temperature during this study, which matched observations from other areas along the Central California coast that winter.

At the time this study was conducted, the Thomas Fire was the largest wildfire in California history. Since then, California fires have increased in danger, destruction, and human mortality; the Mendocino Fire complex (summer 2018) and five separate wildfires in summer 2020 exceeded the impacts of the Thomas Fire. With wildfire severity and frequency increasing not only in California but in coastal regions worldwide, this study gives an important first look at the impact of wildfire smoke and ash on oceanic primary productivity and community composition.

Authors:
Sasha Kramer (University of California Santa Barbara)
Kelsey Bisson (Oregon State University)
Alexis Fischer (University of California Santa Cruz)

Species loss alters ecosystem function in plankton communities

Posted by mmaheigan

· Monday, February 8th, 2021

Climate change impacts on the ocean such as warming, altered nutrient supply, and acidification will lead to significant rearrangement of phytoplankton communities, with the potential for some phytoplankton species to become extinct, especially at the regional level. This leads to the question: What are phytoplankton species’ redundancy levels from ecological and biogeochemical standpoints—i.e. will other species be able to fill the functional ecological and/or biogeochemical roles of the extinct species? Authors of a paper published recently in Global Change Biology explored these ideas using a global three-dimensional computer model with diverse planktonic communities, in which single phytoplankton types were partially or fully eliminated. Complex trophic interactions such as decreased abundance of a predator’s predator led to unexpected “ripples” through the community structure and in particular, reductions in carbon transfer to higher trophic levels. The impacts of changes in resource utilization extended to regions beyond where the phytoplankton type went extinct. Redundancy appeared lowest for types on the edges of trait space (e.g., smallest) or those with unique competitive strategies. These are responses that laboratory or field studies may not adequately capture. These results suggest that species losses could compound many of the already anticipated outcomes of changing climate in terms of productivity, trophic transfer, and restructuring of planktonic communities. The authors also suggest that a combination of modeling, field, and laboratory studies will be the best path forward for studying functional redundancy in phytoplankton.

Figure caption: Examples of the modelled ecological and biogeochemical responses to the extinction of different phytoplankton species.Figure caption: Examples of the modelled ecological and biogeochemical responses to the extinction of different phytoplankton species.

Authors:
Stephanie Dutkiewicz (Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
Philip W. Boyd (Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, University of Tasmania)
Ulf Riebesell (GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel)

Does ocean acidification make marine fish grow differently? What about sex-specific effects?

Posted by mmaheigan

· Monday, February 8th, 2021

The question of whether ocean acidification (OA) will impact the growth of marine fish remains surprisingly uncertain. The bulk of available evidence in the form of laboratory experiments suggests that most fish are not impacted by OA-relevant CO₂ levels, but many studies suffer from the inherent methodical constraints of rearing marine fish in captivity. For example, most experiments cover a small fraction of a species’ lifespan and do not employ restricted feeding regimes which may enable fish to increase feeding to offset metabolic deficits associated with high-CO₂ acclimation.

To address these methodological shortcomings, authors of a recent publication in PLOS One synthesized three years of multiple long-term, food-controlled experiments that reared large populations of the model forage fish Menidia menidia (Atlantic silverside) from fertilization to about a third of their lifespan. Results showed modest but consistent negative, temperature-dependent growth effects, in which silversides from high-CO₂ treatments were shorter (-3% to -9%) and weighed less (-6% to -18%) than ambient-CO₂ conspecifics. However, sometimes it takes more than just looking at means and standard deviations to elucidate these effects. Hence, the authors employed powerful shift functions to analyze how the size distributions of experimental populations shifted to smaller quantiles under future CO₂ conditions.

Figure caption: The length of juvenile Atlantic silversides reared from fertilization under control (blue dots) and high-CO₂ treatments (red dots). Exposure to OA conditions imposed a universal shift to a smaller body size across the size frequency distribution. Black vertical bars overlaying each distribution indicate the .1, .25, .5, .75, and .9 quantiles and quantile shifts are indicated by connecting lines.

It took over 100 days of continuous high-CO₂ exposure until size differences were detectable. This means that long-term CO₂effects could exist in other tested species but are missed in relatively short experiments. Furthermore, the authors sexed several thousand fish to enable a rare sex-specific analysis of CO₂ effects. Both sexes were similarly affected by high CO₂, and the hormonal pathways that mediate environmental sex determination in this species are not impacted by CO₂ level. Our results confirm that Atlantic silversides are relatively tolerant of future OA conditions. But even in this robust estuarine species, high CO₂ can reduce growth. This could have cascading effects on population dynamics by impacting size-dependent traits like reproductive success and over-wintering survival of this widespread and ecologically important prey species.

Authors
Christopher S. Murray (University of Washington)
Hannes Baumann (University of Connecticut)

Climate-driven pelagification of marine food webs: Implications for marine fish populations

Posted by mmaheigan

· Friday, January 22nd, 2021

Global warming changes the conditions for all ocean life, with wide-ranging consequences. It is particularly difficult to predict the impact of climate change on fish because fish production is conditioned on both temperature and food resource (zooplankton and benthic organisms) changes. Climate change projections from Earth system models show a negative amplification of changes in global ocean net primary production (NPP), with an approximate doubling of production decreases from net primary producers to mesozooplankton. This “trophic amplification” continues up the marine food web to fishes. A new study published in Frontiers in Marine Science illustrates this amplification clearly when fishes are defined by their maximum body size, which describes their position in the food web (Figure 1a). However, decreases in globally integrated biomass and production were not limited to differences in size alone. Importantly, reduced abundances also varied by fish functional type (Figure 1b).

Figure 1: a) Percent change in net primary production (NPP), mesozooplankton (MesoZ) production, all medium (M) fishes, and all large (L) fishes from Historic (1951-2000) to the RCP 8.5 Projection (2051-2100). b) Percent change in production of forage fish, large pelagic fish, demersal fish, and benthic invertebrates in Projection (2051-2100) from Historic (1951-2000). c) Absolute change in the ratio of zooplankton production to seafloor detrital flux as the difference of the Projection (2051-2100) from the Historic (1951-2000). d) Percent change in zooplankton production (dashed grey), percent change in seafloor detrital flux (solid grey), and absolute change in the ratio of their means during the Historic and Projection time periods relative to 1951.

Despite the “pelagification” of marine food webs caused by unequal decreases in secondary production (Figure 1d) and subsequent increases in pelagic zooplankton production relative to seafloor detritus production (Figure 1c,d), large pelagic fish (e.g., tunas and billfishes) suffered the greatest declines and the highest degree of projection uncertainty. The result was a shift from benthic-based ecosystems historically dominated by large demersal fish (e.g., cods and flounders) towards pelagic-based ones dominated by smaller forage fish (e.g., sardines and herring). Any positive impacts of the pelagification of food resources on large pelagic fish were overwhelmed by the negative impacts of the overall reduction in global productivity, compounded by warming-induced increases in metabolic demands. Both the degree of change in the productivity of large pelagic fish and the magnitude of trophic amplification were sensitive to the temperature dependence of metabolic rates. Thus, better constraints are needed on empirical estimates of the effect of temperature on physiological rates to project the impacts of climate change on fish biomass and marine ecosystem structure.

Ocean fish harvests currently supply ~15% of global protein demand. Reduced primary production will decrease the total amount of fish available to harvest for human food, while the pelagification of ecosystems could require large and expensive structural modifications to fisheries, including gear, location, regional and international management plans, consumer demands, and market values.

Authors:
Colleen M. Petrik (Texas A&M University)
Charles A. Stock (Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory)
Ken H. Andersen (Technical University of Denmark)
P. Daniël van Denderen (International Council for the Exploration of the Seas)
James R. Watson (Oregon State University)

Sea ice loss amplifies CO2 increase in the Arctic

Posted by mmaheigan

· Thursday, January 7th, 2021

Warming and sea ice loss over the past few decades have caused major changes in sea surface partial pressure of CO₂ (pCO₂) of the western Arctic Ocean, but detailed temporal variations and trends during this period of rapid climate-driven changes are not well known.

Based on an analysis of an international Arctic pCO₂ synthesis data set collected between 1994-2017, the authors of a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change observed that summer sea surface pCO₂ in the Canada Basin is increasing at twice the rate of atmospheric CO₂ rise. Warming, ice loss and subsequent CO₂ uptake in the Basin are amplifying seasonal pCO₂ changes, resulting in a rapid long-term increase. Consequently, the summer air-sea CO₂ gradient has decreased sharply and may approach zero by the 2030s, which is reducing the basin’s capacity to remove CO₂from the atmosphere. In stark contrast, sea surface pCO₂ on the Chukchi Shelf remains low and relatively constant during this time frame, which the authors attribute to increasingly strong biological production in response to higher intrusion of nutrient-rich Pacific Ocean water onto the shelf as a result of increased Bering Strait throughflow. These trends suggest that, unlike the Canada Basin, the Chukchi Shelf will become a larger carbon sink in the future, with implications for the deep ocean carbon cycle and ecosystem.

As Arctic sea ice melting accelerates, more fresh, low-buffer capacity, high-CO₂ water will enter the upper layer of the Canada Basin, which may rapidly acidify the surface water, endanger marine calcifying organisms, and disrupt ecosystem function.

Figure. 1: TOP) Sea surface pCO₂ trend in the Canada Basin and Chukchi Shelf. The grey dots represent the raw observations of pCO₂, black dots are the monthly mean of pCO₂ at in situ SST, and red dots are the monthly means of pCO₂ normalized to the long-term means of SST. The arrows indicate the statistically significant change in ∆pCO₂. BOTTOM) Sea ice-loss amplifying surface water pCO₂ in the Canada Basin. Black dots represent the initial condition for pCO₂ and DIC at -1.6 ℃. The arrows indicate the processes of warming (red), CO₂ uptake from the atmosphere (green), dilution by ice meltwater (blue). The yellow shaded areas indicate the possible seasonal variations of pCO₂, which are amplified by the synergistic effect of ice melt, warming and CO₂ uptake.

Authors:
Zhangxian Ouyang (University of Delaware, USA),
Di Qi (Third Institute of Oceanography, China),
Liqi Chen (Third Institute of Oceanography, China),
Taro Takahashi† (Columbia University, USA),
Wenli Zhong (Ocean University of China, China),
Michael D. DeGrandpre (University of Montana, USA),
Baoshan Chen (University of Delaware, USA),
Zhongyong Gao (Third Institute of Oceanography, China),
Shigeto Nishino (Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology, Japan),
Akihiko Murata (Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology, Japan),
Heng Sun (Third Institute of Oceanography, China),
Lisa L. Robbins (University of South Florida, USA),
Meibing Jin (International Arctic Research Center, USA),
Wei-Jun Cai* (University of Delaware, USA)

Funding for the Ocean Carbon & Biogeochemistry Project Office is provided by the National Science Foundation (NSF) and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The OCB Project Office is housed at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.

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