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Studying marine ecosystems and biogeochemical cycles in the face of environmental change

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Untangling microbial evolution in the oceans: How the interaction of biological and physical timescales determine marine microbial evolutionary strategies

Posted by mmaheigan

· Wednesday, March 11th, 2020

Marine microbes are the engines of global biogeochemical cycling in the oceans. They are responsible for approximately half of all photosynthesis on the planet and drive the ‘biological pump’, which transfers organic carbon from the surface to the deep ocean. As such, it is important to determine how marine microbes will adapt and evolve in response to a changing climate in order to understand and predict how the global carbon cycle may change. However, we still lack a mechanistic understanding of how and how fast microorganisms adapt to stressful and changing environments. This is particularly challenging due to the diversity of organisms that live in the ocean and the dynamic nature of the oceans themselves—microbes are at the whim of ocean currents and so get transported large distances fairly quickly. For the first time, a new study published in PNAS provides a prediction on the controls of microbial evolutionary timescales in the oceans. The authors hypothesize that there is a trade-off for marine microbes between ability to evolve to long-term changes versus respond to shorter term variability. Their results suggest that marine microbes commonly experience conditions that favor a short-term strategy at the cost of long-term adaptation. This trade-off determines evolutionary timescales and provides a foundation for understanding distributions of microbial traits and biogeochemistry.

Illustration of trade-off in evolutionary strategy as a function of environmental variability. Trajectories where individuals perceived high environmental variability (a & b) exhibited low selective pressure for any one environment but allowed for high environmental tracking. Trajectories where individuals perceived a more stable environment (c&d) had high selective pressure for ’new environments’ (high probability of a selective sweep) but these individuals exhibited poor environmental tracking. Panels a and c show trajectories where selective sweeps were highly probable (red), likely (yellow), and had a low probability (grey). Panels b and d show the estimated persistence of non-genetic modifications necessary for environmental tracking, where grey indicates unrealistically long timescales.

Authors:
Nathan G. Walworth (University of Southern California)
Emily J. Zakem (University of Southern California)
John P. Dunne (Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory, NOAA)
Sinéad Collins (University of Edinburgh)
Naomi M. Levine (University of Southern California)

Hurricane-driven surge of labile carbon into the deep North Atlantic Ocean

Posted by mmaheigan

· Thursday, February 27th, 2020

Tropical cyclones (hurricanes and typhoons) are the most extreme episodic weather event affecting subtropical and temperate oceans. Hurricanes generate intense surface cooling and vertical mixing in the upper ocean, resulting in nutrient upwelling into the photic zone and episodic phytoplankton blooms. However, their influence on the deep ocean is unknown.

Figure 1. (a) Particulate organic carbon (POC) flux and percentage of the total mass flux (yellow) (top panel); fluxes (middle panel) and POC-normalized concentrations (bottom panel) of diagnostic lipid biomarkers for phytoplankton-derived and labile material, zooplankton, bacteria, and other (see legend); (b) Lipid concentrations (left panel) and POC-normalized concentrations (right panel) of diagnostic lipid biomarkers for the same sources as in (a) (see legend) measured two weeks after Nicole’s passage (25-29 Oct. 2016). Shown for reference are total lipid concentration profiles in April 2015 (dark gray, typical post spring bloom conditions) and Nov 2015 (light gray, typical minimum production period).

In October 2016, Category 3 Hurricane Nicole passed over the Bermuda time-series site (Oceanic Flux Program (OFP) and Bermuda Atlantic Time-Series site (BATS)) in the oligotrophic NW Atlantic Ocean. In a recent study published in Geophysical Research Letters, authors synthesized multidisciplinary data from hydrographic and phytoplankton measurements and lipid composition of sinking and suspended particles collected from OFP and BATS, respectively, after Hurricane Nicole in 2016. After the hurricane passed, particulate fluxes of lipids diagnostic of fresh phytodetritus, zooplankton, and microbial biomass increased by 30-300% at 1500 m depth and 30-800% at 3200 m depth (Figure 1a). In addition, mesopelagic suspended particles were enriched in phytodetrital material, as well as zooplankton- and bacteria-sourced lipids (Figure 1b), indicating particle disaggregation and a deep-water ecosystem response.

These results suggest that carbon export and biogeochemical cycles may be impacted by climate-induced changes in hurricane frequency, intensity, and tracks, and, underscore the sensitivity of deep ocean ecosystems to climate perturbations.

Authors:
Rut Pedrosa-Pamies (Marine Biological Laboratory)
Maureen H. Conte (Bermuda Institute of Ocean Science and Marine Biological Laboratory)
JC Weber (Marine Biological Laboratory)
Rodney Johnson (Bermuda Institute of Ocean Science)

The past, present, and future of the ocean carbon cycle: A global data product with regional insights

Posted by mmaheigan

· Tuesday, January 21st, 2020

A new study published in Scientific Reports debuts a global data product of ocean acidification (OA) and buffer capacity from the beginning of the Industrial Revolution to the end of the century (1750-2100 C.E.). To develop this product, the authors linked one of the richest observational carbon dioxide (CO₂) data products (6^th version of the Surface Ocean CO₂ Atlas, 1991-2018, ~23 million observations) with temporal trends modeled at individual locations in the global ocean. By linking the modeled pH trends to the observed modern pH distribution, the climatology benefits from recent improvements in both model design and observational data coverage, and is likely to provide more accurate regional OA trajectories than the model output alone. The authors also show that air-sea CO₂ disequilibrium is the dominant mode of spatial variability for surface pH, and discuss why pH and calcium carbonate mineral saturation states (Omega), two important metrics for OA, show contrasting spatial variability. They discover that sea surface temperature (SST) imposes two large but cancelling effects on surface ocean pH and Omega, i.e., the effects of SST on (a) chemical speciation of the carbonic system; and (b) air-sea exchange of CO₂ and the subsequent DIC/TA ratio of the seawater. These two processes act in concert for Omega but oppose each other for pH. As a result, while Omega is markedly lower in the colder polar regions than in the warmer subtropical and tropical regions, surface ocean pH shows little latitudinal variation.

Figure 1. Spatial distribution of global surface ocean pH_T (total hydrogen scale, annually averaged) in past (1770), present (2000) and future (2100) under the IPCC RCP8.5 scenario.

This data product, which extends from the pre-Industrial era (1750 C.E.) to the end of this century under historical atmospheric CO₂ concentrations (pre-2005) and the Representative Concentrations Pathways (post-2005) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)’s 5^th Assessment Report, may be helpful to policy-makers and managers who are developing regional adaptation strategies for ocean acidification.

The published paper is available here: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-55039-4

The data product is available here: https://www.nodc.noaa.gov/oads/data/0206289.xml

Authors:
Li-Qing Jiang (University of Maryland and NOAA NCEI)
Brendan Carter (NOAA PMEL and University of Washington JISAO)
Richard Feely (NOAA PMEL)
Siv Lauvset, Are Olsen (University of Bergen and Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research, Norway)

Surface bacterial communities respond to rapid changes in the western Arctic

Posted by mmaheigan

· Tuesday, January 7th, 2020

During the western Arctic summer open water season, latitudinal differences in the physical and biogeochemical features of the surface water are apparent from the Bering Strait to the Chukchi Borderland. Lower latitude regions (i.e. Bering Strait to Chukchi Shelf) are primarily driven by the inflow of Pacific waters that supply nutrients and heat, leading to high primary production. Conversely, the higher latitude regions (i.e. Chukchi Borderland and Canada Basin) are relatively cold, fresh, and oligotrophic because the surface layer is influenced by freshwater inputs from melting ice and rivers via the Beaufort Gyre. Mixing of the two surface water masses in the western Arctic produces a physicochemical frontal zone (FZ) in the Chukchi Sea.

In a recent study published in Scientific Reports, authors used observations from summer 2017 to investigate latitudinal variations in bacterial community composition in surface waters between the Bering Strait and Chukchi Borderland and the underlying processes driving the changes. Results indicate three distinctive communities: 1) Southern Chukchi (SC) bacterial communities are associated with nutrient-rich conditions, including genera such as Sulfitobacter; 2) a northern Chukchi (NC) bacterial community that dominated by SAR clades, Flavobacterium, Paraglaciecola, and Polaribacter, genera associated with low nutrients and sea ice conditions. If climate-driven changes in the western Arctic continue along the same trajectory, it’s likely we will see altered bacterial communities. If the impact of warm, nutrient-rich Pacific water inflows dominates, it is likely that the productive SC region will expand and the FZ will move northward, leading to nutrient enrichment in the western Arctic (Figure 1). In response, bacterial communities would be dominated by organic matter decomposers, such as Sulfitobacter, due to high primary productivity. However, if the impact of sea-ice meltwater dominates, then the oligotrophic NC region will expand and the FZ will move southward, leading to nutrient depletion in western Arctic surface waters (Figure 1). Continued monitoring in this region will enhance our understanding of how bacterial communities respond (Figure 1b) to a rapidly changing western Arctic Ocean.

Figure 1. (a) Map of the August 2017 Ice Breaker RV Araon western Arctic Ocean sampling stations used in this study. The basemap shows the Chl-a concentration contour (blue to red background colors). Pink, green, and blue circles represent stations in the South Chukchi (SC), Frontal Zone (FZ), and Northern Chukchi (NC) regions. (b) Schematic diagram of surface bacterial community distribution in response to future western Arctic Ocean changes.

Authors:
Il-Nam Kim (Department of Marine Science, Incheon National University)
Sung-Ho Kang (Korea Polar Research Institute)
Eun Jin Yang (Korea Polar Research Institute)

The Equatorial Undercurrent influences the fate of the Oxygen Minimum Zone in the Pacific

Posted by mmaheigan

· Tuesday, November 12th, 2019

While the ocean as a whole is losing oxygen due to warming, oxygen minimum zones (OMZs) are maintained by a delicate balance of biological and physical processes; it is unclear how each one of them is going to evolve in the future. Changes to OMZs could affect the global uptake of carbon, the generation of greenhouse gases, and interactions among marine life. Current generation coarse-resolution (~1°) climate models compromise the ability to simulate low-oxygen waters and their response to climate change in the future because they fail to reproduce a major ocean current, the Equatorial Undercurrent (EUC). These shortcomings lead to an overly tilted upper oxygen minimum zone (OMZ) (Figure 1), thus exaggerating sensitivity to circulation changes and overwhelming other key processes like diffusion and biology. The EUC also plays a vital role in feeding the eastern Pacific upwelling region, connecting it to global climate variability.

Figure: Top: The boundary of the Oxygen Minimum Zone (OMZ) along the Equator is unrealistically tilted for current generation (coarse resolution) climate models, and improves with increased horizontal resolution. The tilt is due to a bad representation of the Equatorial Undercurrent in the coarse model, also seen in other coarse models. The exaggerated tilt of the OMZ boundary at the Equator leads to increased inter-annual variability of the depth of the upper OMZ boundary, via changes in the zonal flow (left). This phenomenon is found in most CMIP5 models (right) and could be responsible for the current inability to predict the change in OMZ extent for the next century.

A recent high‐resolution climate model study in Geophysical Research Letters significantly improved the representation of both the EUC and OMZ, suggesting that the EUC is a key player in OMZ variability. This study emphasizes the importance of improving transport processes in global circulation models to better simulate oxygen distribution and predict future OMZ extent. The results of this study imply that the fundamental dynamics maintaining this key ocean current could be categorically misrepresented in the current generation of climate models, potentially influencing the ability to predict future climate variability and trends.

Authors:
Julius J.M. Busecke (Princeton University)
Laure Resplandy (Princeton University)
John P. Dunne (NOAA/GFDL)

A new roadmap of climate change driven ocean changes

Posted by mmaheigan

· Wednesday, October 2nd, 2019

When will we see significant changes in the ocean due to climate change? A new study in Nature Climate Change confirms that outcomes tied directly to the escalation of atmospheric carbon dioxide have already emerged in the existing 30-year observational record. These include sea surface warming, acidification, and increases in the rate at which the ocean removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.

In contrast, processes tied indirectly to the ramp-up of atmospheric carbon dioxide through the gradual modification of climate and ocean circulation will take longer, from three decades to more than a century. These include changes in upper-ocean mixing, nutrient supply, and the cycling of carbon through marine plants and animals.

The researchers performed model simulations of potential future climate states that could result from a combination of human-made climate change and random chance (figure 1). These experiments were performed with an Earth System Model, a climate model that has an interactive carbon cycle such that changes in the climate and carbon cycle can be considered in tandem.

Figure 1: Percentage of ocean with emergent anthropogenic trends in ocean biogeochemical and physical variables. A time series of the percentage of the global ocean area with locally emergent anthropogenic trends illustrates the disparity of emergence timescales for anthropogenic changes in the ocean carbon cycle. Emergence is defined as the point in time when the LE’s signal-to-noise ratio for a linear trend referenced to the year 1990 first exceeds a magnitude of two, which represents a 95% confidence in the identification of an anthropogenic trend in the LE Ω applies to the saturation state of both the aragonite and calcite forms of calcium carbonate (CaCO₃), for which the emergence times are approximately equivalent. The CaCO₃ and soft-tissue pumps were calculated as the export flux at 100 m depth of CaCO₃ and particulate organic carbon, respectively. The heat content was calculated as an integral over 0–700 m, whereas the oxygen (O₂) inventories consider the integral 200–600 m, and chlorophyll inventories were considered over 0–500 m. NPP represents an integral over 0–100 m. All the other variables represent sea surface properties.

The finding of a 30- to 100-year delay in the emergence of effects suggests that ocean observation programs should be maintained for many decades into the future to effectively monitor the changes occurring in the ocean. The study also indicates that the detectability of some changes in the ocean would benefit from improvements to the current observational sampling strategy. These include looking deeper into the ocean for changes in phytoplankton and capturing changes in both summer and winter ocean-atmosphere exchange of carbon dioxide rather than just the annual mean.

Figure 2. Venn Diagram schematic of sources of uncertainty in simulation (using Earth-System Modeling approach) and observation of changes in the Earth system. For emergence, detection or attribution of an observed or simulated signal to occur, the signal must overcome the sources of uncertainty in their respective brackets.

Many types of observational efforts, including time-series or permanent locations of continuous measurement, as well as regional sampling programs and global remote sensing platforms are critical for understanding our changing planet and improving our capacity to detect change.

Authors:
Sarah Schlunegger (Princeton University)
Keith B. Rodgers (Institute for Basic Science and Busan National University, South Korea)
Jorge L. Sarmiento (Princeton University)
Thomas L. Frölicher (University of Bern)
John P. Dunne (NOAA Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory)
Masao Ishii (Japan Meteorological Agency)
Richard Slater (Princeton University)

Industrial era climate forcing drives multi-century decline in North Atlantic productivity

Posted by mmaheigan

· Wednesday, October 2nd, 2019

Phytoplankton respond directly to climate forcing, and due to their central role in global oxygen production and atmospheric carbon sequestration, they are critical components of the Earth’s climate system. There are however few observations detailing past variability in marine primary productivity, particularly over multi-decadal to centennial timescales. This limits our understanding of the long-term impact of climatic forcing on both past and future marine productivity.

Multi-century decline of subarctic Atlantic productivity. From top: standardized (z-score units relative to ad 1958-2016) indices of Continuous Plankton Recorder (CPR)-based diatom, dinoflagellate and coccolithophore relative-abundances; North Atlantic [chlorophyll-α] reconstruction from Boyce et al. (2010, Nature); ice core-based [MSA] PC1 productivity index. The “Industrial Onset” range shows the estimated initiation of declining subarctic Atlantic productivity; reconstructed (Rahmstorf et al., 2015, Nat. Clim. Change) and observed sea-surface temperature-based Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (i.e., AMOC) index, alongside 5-year averaged subarctic Atlantic freshwater storage anomalies (relative to A.D. 1955) from Curry and Mauritzen (2005; Science).

Authors of a new study published in Nature used a high-resolution signal of marine biogenic aerosol emissions (methanesulfonic acid, or “MSA”) preserved within twelve Greenland ice cores to reconstruct a ~250-year record of marine productivity variations across the subarctic Atlantic basin, one of the most biologically productive and climatically sensitive regions on Earth. These results provide the most continuous proxy-based reconstruction of basin-scale productivity to date in this region, illuminating the following major findings: (1) subarctic Atlantic marine productivity has declined over the industrial era by as much as 10 ± 7%; (2) the early 19th century onset of declining productivity coincides with the regional onset of industrial-era surface warming, and also strongly covaries with regional sea surface temperatures and basin-scale gyre circulation strength; (3) there is strong decadal- to centennial-scale coherence between northern Atlantic productivity variability and declining Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) strength, as predicted by prior model-based studies.

Future atmospheric warming is predicted to contribute to accelerating Greenland Ice Sheet runoff, ocean-surface freshening, and AMOC slowdown, suggesting the potential for continued declines in productivity across this dynamic and climatically important region. Such declines will, in turn, have important implications for future maritime economies, global food security, and drawdown of atmospheric carbon dioxide.

Authors:
Matthew Osman (Massachusetts Institute of Technology)
Sarah Das (Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution)
Luke Trusel (Rowan University)
Matthew Evans (Wheaton College)
Hubertus Fischer (University of Bern)
Mackenzie Griemann (University of California, Irvine)
Sepp Kipfstuhl (Alfred-Wegener-Institute)
Joseph McConnell (Desert Research Institute)
Eric Saltzman (University of California, Irvine)

Figure references:
Boyce, D. G., Lewis, M. R. & Worm, B. (2010) Global phytoplankton decline over the past century. Nature 466, 591–596.

Curry, R. & Mauritzen, C. (2005) Dilution of the northern North Atlantic Ocean in recent decades. Science 308, 1772–1774.

Rahmstorf, S. et al. (2015) Exceptional twentieth-century slowdown in Atlantic Ocean overturning circulation. Nat. Clim. Change 5, 475–480.

Where the primary production goes determines whether you catch tuna or cod

Posted by mmaheigan

· Friday, September 6th, 2019

Fishes are incredibly diverse, fill various roles in their ecosystems, and are an important resource—economically, socially, and nutritionally. The relationship between primary productivity and fish catches is not straightforward; fisheries oceanographers and managers have long struggled to predict abundances and fully understand the controls of cross-ecosystem differences in fish abundances and assemblages. A recent study in Progress in Oceanography modeled the relationships between fish abundances and assemblages and ecosystem factors such as physical properties and plankton productivity.

The mechanistic model simulated feeding, growth, reproduction, and mortality of small pelagic forage fish, large pelagic fish, and demersal (bottom-dwelling) fish in the global ocean using plankton food web estimates and ocean conditions from a high-resolution earth system model of the 1990s. Modeled fish assemblages were more related to the separation of secondary production into pelagic zooplankton or benthic fauna secondary production than to primary productivity. Specifically, the ratio of pelagic to benthic production drove spatial differences in dominance by large pelagic fish or by demersal fish. Similarly, demersal fish abundance was highly sensitive to the efficiency of energy transfer from exported surface production to benthic fauna.

The model results offer a systematic understanding of how marine fish communities are structured by spatially varying environmental conditions. With global climate change, the expected decrease in exported primary production would lead to fewer demersal fish around the world. This model provides a framework for testing the effect of changing conditions on fish communities at a global scale, which can also help inform managers of potential impacts on economic, social, and nutritional resources worldwide.

Figure 1: (A) Sample food web with three fish types, two habitats, two prey categories, and feeding interactions (arrows). Dashed arrow denotes feeding only occurs in shelf regions with depth <200 m. (B) Fraction of large pelagic vs. demersal fishes (LP/(LP+D)) as a function of the ratio of zooplankton production lost to higher predation (Zoop) to detritus flux to the seafloor (Bent) averaged over large marine ecosystems. Solid line: predicted linear model response, dashed lines: standard error. (Lower panels) Circles=mean biomasses (g m^-2) and lines=fluxes of biomass (g m^-2 d^-1) through the pelagic (top 100m) and benthic components of the food webs at two test locations, (C) Peruvian Upwelling (PUP) ecosystem and (D) Eastern Bering Sea (EBS) shelf ecosystem. Circles and lines scale with the modeled biomasses and fluxes. Circle color key: Gray=net primary productivity (NPP); yellow=medium and large zooplankton; red=forage fish; blue=large pelagic fish; brown=benthos; green=demersal fish.

Authors:
Colleen M. Petrik (Princeton University, Texas A&M University)
Charles A. Stock (NOAA Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory)
Ken H. Andersen (Technical University of Denmark)
P. Daniël van Denderen (Technical University of Denmark)
James R. Watson (Oregon State University)

Regional circulation changes and a growing atmospheric CO2 concentration drive accelerated anthropogenic carbon uptake in the South Pacific

Posted by mmaheigan

· Tuesday, August 6th, 2019

About one tenth of human CO₂ emissions are currently being taken up by the Pacific Ocean, which makes the seawater more corrosive to the calcium carbonate shells and skeletons of the plants and animals that live there. Now, thanks to hard work by international teams of scientists from the Global Ocean Ship-based Hydrographic Investigations Program (GO-SHIP), there are decades of data, enough to test how much this anthropogenic CO₂ accumulation varies throughout the Pacific Ocean and regionally on the timescales of decades.

Figure caption: Map of the concentration of human-emitted CO₂ along the sections where data were available from more than one decade, estimated for the year 2015.

Using a new take on an old technique, along with a wide variety of repeat biogeochemical measurements, a study in Biogeochemical Cycles revealed that Pacific anthropogenic CO₂ accumulation increased from the 1995-2005 decade to the 2005-2015 decade. While the magnitude of the decadal increase was consistent with increases in human CO₂ emissions over this period for most of the Pacific, the rate of change was greater than expected in the South Pacific subtropical gyre. The authors suggest that recent increases in circulation in the gyre region could have delivered an unexpectedly large amount of anthropogenic CO₂-laden seawater from the surface to the ocean interior. Programs like GO-SHIP will continue to be critical for tracking the fate of human CO₂emissions and associated feedbacks on climate and marine ecosystems.

Authors:
B. R. Carter (Univ. Washington and PMEL)
R. A. Feely, G. C. Johnson, J. L. Bullister (PMEL)
R. Wanninkhof (NOAA AOML)
S. Kouketsu, A. Murata (JAMSTEC
R. E. Sonnerup, S. Mecking (Univ. Washington)
P. C. Pardo (Univ. Tasmania)
C. L. Sabine (Univ. Hawai‘i, Mānoa)
B. M. Sloyan, B. Tilbrook (CSIRO, Australia)
K. Speer (Florida State University
L. D. Talley (Scripps Institution of Oceanography)
F. J. Millero (Univ. Miami)
S. E. Wijffels (CSIRO and WHOI)
A. M. Macdonald (WHOI)
N. Gruber (ETH Zurich)

A new era of observing the ocean carbonate system

Posted by mmaheigan

· Tuesday, August 6th, 2019

Amidst a backdrop of natural variability, the ocean carbonate system is undergoing a massive anthropogenic change. To capture this anthropogenic signal and differentiate it from natural variability, carbonate observations are needed across a range of spatial and temporal scales (Figure 1), many of which are not captured by traditional oceanographic platforms. A new review of autonomous carbonate observations published in Current Climate Change Reports highlights the development and deployment of pH sensors capable of in situ measurements on autonomous platforms, which represents a major step forward in observing the ocean carbonate system. These sensors have been rigorously field-tested via large-scale deployments on profiling floats in the Southern Ocean (Southern Ocean Carbon and Climate Observations and Modeling, SOCCOM), providing an unprecedented wealth of year-round data that have demonstrated the importance of wintertime outgassing of carbon dioxide in the Southern Ocean.

Figure 1: Observational capabilities and carbonate system processes as a function of time and space. Ocean processes that affect the carbonate system (solid color shapes—labeled in the legend) are depicted as a function of the temporal and spatial scales over which they must be observed to capture important variability and/or long-term change.

Most current autonomous platforms routinely measure only a single carbonate parameter, which then requires an algorithm to estimate a second parameter so that the rest of the carbonate system can be calculated. However, the ongoing development of sensors and systems to measure, rather than estimate, other carbonate parameters may greatly reduce uncertainty in constraining the full carbonate system. It is critical that the community continue to develop and adhere to best practices for calibration and data handling as existing sensors are deployed in increasing numbers and new sensors become available. Expanding autonomous carbonate measurements will increase our understanding of how anthropogenic change impacts natural variability and will provide a means to monitor carbon uptake by the ocean in real-time at high spatial and temporal resolution. This will not only help to understand the mechanisms driving changes in the ocean carbonate system, but will allow new insights in the role of mesoscale processes in regional and global biogeochemical cycles.

Authors:
Seth M. Bushinsky (Princeton University/University of Hawai’i Mānoa)
Yuichiro Takeshita (Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute)
Nancy L. Williams (Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory – NOAA / University of South Florida)

Funding for the Ocean Carbon & Biogeochemistry Project Office is provided by the National Science Foundation (NSF) and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The OCB Project Office is housed at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.

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