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Severe warming = 15% increase in bacterial respiration: Southern Ocean most impacted

Posted by mmaheigan

· Thursday, March 30th, 2023

The utilization, respiration, and remineralization of organic matter exported from the ocean surface to its depths are key processes in the ocean carbon cycle. Marine heterotrophic Bacteria play a critical role in these activities. However, most three-dimensional (3-D) coupled physical-biogeochemical models do not explicitly include Bacteria as a state variable. Instead, they rely on parameterization to account for the bacteria’s impact on particle flux attenuation.

A recent study examined how bacteria respond to climate change by employing a 3-D coupled ocean biogeochemical model that incorporates explicit bacterial dynamics. The model (CMCC-ESM2) is a part of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6. The authors first evaluated the reliability of century-scale forecasts (2015-2099) for bacterial stocks and rates in the upper 100 m layer against the compiled measurements from the contemporary period (1988-2011). Next the authors analyzed the predicted trends in bacterial stocks and rates under diverse climate scenarios and explored their association with regional differences in temperature and organic carbon stocks. Three crucial findings were revealed. There is a global-scale decrease in bacterial biomass of 5-10%, with a 3-5% increase in the Southern Ocean (Figure 1). In the Southern Ocean, the rise in semi-labile dissolved organic carbon (DOC) leads to an increase in DOC uptake rates of free-living bacteria; in the northern high and low latitudes, the increase in temperature drives the increase in their DOC uptake rates. Importantly, extreme warming could result in a global increase (up to 15%) and even higher in the Southern Ocean (21% increase) in bacterial respiration (Figure 1), potentially leading to a decline in the biological carbon pump.

This analysis is an unprecedented and early effort to understand the climate-induced changes in bacterial dynamics on a global scale in a systematic manner. This study takes us one step closer to comprehending how bacteria influence the functioning of the biological carbon pump and the distribution of organic carbon pools between surface and deep layers, especially their response to climate change.

Figure 1. Global projections of bacterial carbon stocks and rates during the baseline period (1990-2013) and their changes as anomalies under the most-severe climate change scenario (i.e., SSP5-8.5) relative to the baseline period (2076-2099). The stocks and rates during the baseline period (a, b, c, g, h, i) and their changes as anomalies under the most-severe climate change scenario (d, e, f, j, k, l). All variables are depth-integrated in the upper 100 m. Solid-line contours as standard deviation from averaging over 1990-2013. Anomalies are 2076-2099 average values relative to 1990-2013 average values. Global bacterial biomass has decreased by 5-10%, with a 3-5% increase in the Southern Ocean. However, extreme warming may increase bacterial respiration worldwide, thereby reducing the efficiency of the biological carbon pump. This study provides an early attempt to understand the response of bacteria to climate change and their impact on the distribution of organic carbon in the ocean.

Author
Heather Kim, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution

Drivers of recent Chesapeake Bay warming

Posted by mmaheigan

· Friday, August 26th, 2022

Coastal water temperatures have been increasing globally with more frequent marine heat waves threatening marine life and nearshore communities reliant upon these ecosystems. Often, this warming is assumed to be uniform in space and time; however, this is not the case in the Chesapeake Bay, where warming waters play a major role in exacerbating low oxygen levels and indirectly limiting the efficacy of nutrient reduction efforts on land.

New research published in the Journal of the American Water Resources Association combined long-term observations and a hydrodynamic model to quantify the temporal and spatial variability in warming Chesapeake Bay waters, and identify the contributions of different mechanisms driving these historical temperature changes. While winter temperatures have warmed by less than a half a degree over the past 30 years, summer temperatures have warmed by nearly 1.5 °C, with similar increases at the surface and bottom. In cooler months, the atmosphere was the dominant driver of warming throughout the majority of the Bay, but oceanic warming explained more than half of the increased summer temperatures in the southern Bay nearest the Atlantic.

Figure 1: Relative contribution of different factors to warm-month Chesapeake Bay temperature change over the period 1985-2015. Percentages correspond to average main channel contributions for each component.

Warming temperatures have potentially significant implications for the future size of the Chesapeake Bay dead zone, and the marine species directly affected by these low oxygen conditions. Better quantifying warming contributions from the atmosphere, ocean, sea level, and rivers will also help constrain regional temperature projections throughout the estuary. More accurate projections of future Bay temperatures can help coastal managers better understand the potential for invasive species expansion and endemic species loss, impacts to fisheries and aquaculture, and how changes to ecosystem processes may impact coastal communities dependent on a healthy Bay.

Authors:
Kyle E. Hinson (Virginia Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary)
Marjorie A. M. Friedrichs (Virginia Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary)
Pierre St-Laurent (Virginia Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary)
Fei Da (Virginia Institute of Marine Science, William & Mary)
Raymond G. Najjar (The Pennsylvania State University)

Integrated analysis of carbon dioxide and oxygen concentrations as a quality control of ocean float data

Posted by mmaheigan

· Friday, August 26th, 2022

A recent study in Communications Earth & Environment, examined spatiotemporal patterns of the two dissolved gases CO₂ and O₂in the surface ocean, using the high-quality global dataset GLODAPv2.2020. We used surface ocean data from GLODAP to make plots of carbon dioxide and oxygen relative to saturation (CORS plots). These plots of CO₂ deviations from saturation (ΔCO₂) against oxygen deviations from saturation (ΔO₂) (Figure 1) provide detailed insight into the identity and intensity of biogeochemical processes operating in different basins.

Figure 1: Relationships between ΔCO₂ and ΔO₂ in the global ocean basins based on surface data in the GLODAPv2.2020 database. The black dashed lines are the least-squares best-fit lines to the data; unc denotes the uncertainty in the y-intercept value with 95% confidence; r is the associated Pearson correlation coefficient; n is the number of data points.

In addition, data in all basins and all seasons shares some common behaviors: (1) negative slopes of best fit lines to the data, and (2) near-zero y-intercepts of those lines. We utilized these findings to compare patterns in CORS plots from GLODAP with those from BGC-Argo float data from the Southern Ocean Carbon and Climate Observations and Modeling (SOCCOM) program. Given that the float O₂ data is likely to be more accurate than the float pH data (from which the float CO₂ is calculated), CORS plots are useful for detecting questionable float CO₂ data, by comparing trends in float CORS plots (e.g. Figure 2) to trends in GLODAP CORS plots (Figure 1). As well as the immediately detected erroneous data, we discovered significant discrepancies in ΔCO₂-ΔO₂ y-intercepts compared to the global reference (i.e., GLODAPv2.2020 y-intercepts, Figure 1). The y-intercepts of 48 floats with QCed O₂ and CO₂ data (at regions south of 55°S) were on average greater by 0.36 μmol kg⁻¹ than the GLODAP-derived ones, implying the overestimations of float-based CO₂ release in the Southern Ocean.

Figure 2. CORS plots from data collected by SOCCOM floats F9096 and F9099 in the high-latitude Southern Ocean. Circles with solid edges denote data flagged as ‘good’, whereas crosses denote data flagged as ‘questionable’.

Our study demonstrates CORS plots’ ability to identify questionable data (data shown to be questionable by other QC methods) and to reveal issues with supposed ‘good’ data (i.e., quality issues not picked up by other QC methods). CORS plots use only surface data, hence this QC method complements existing methods based on analysis of deep data. As the oceanographic community becomes increasingly reliant on data collected from autonomous platforms, techniques like CORS will help diagnose data quality, and immediately detect questionable data.

Authors:
Yingxu Wu (Polar and Marine Research Institute, Jimei University, Xiamen, China; University of Southampton)
Dorothee C.E. Bakker (University of East Anglia)
Eric P. Achterberg (GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel)
Amavi N. Silva (University of Southampton)
Daisy D. Pickup (University of Southampton)
Xiang Li (George Washington University)
Sue Hartman (National Oceanography Centre, Southampton)
David Stappard (University of Southampton)
Di Qi (Polar and Marine Research Institute, Jimei University, Xiamen, China)
Toby Tyrrell (University of Southampton)

How does the competition between phytoplankton and bacteria for iron alter ocean biogeochemical cycles?

Posted by mmaheigan

· Friday, August 26th, 2022

Free-living bacteria play a key role in cycling essential biogeochemical resources in the ocean, including iron, via their uptake, transformation, and release of organic matter throughout the water column. Bacteria process half of the ocean’s primary production, remineralize dissolved organic matter, and re-direct otherwise lost organic matter to higher trophic levels. For these reasons, it is crucial to understand what factors limit the growth of bacteria and how bacteria activities impact global ocean biogeochemical cycles.

In a recent study, Pham and colleagues used a global ocean ecosystem model to dive into how iron limits the growth of free-living marine bacteria, how bacteria modulate ocean iron cycling, and the consequences to marine ecosystems of the competition between bacteria and phytoplankton for iron.

Figure 1: (a) Iron limitation status of bacteria in December, January, and February (DJF) in the surface ocean. Low values (in blue color = close to zero) mean that iron is the limiting factor for the growth of bacteria; (b) Bacterial iron consumption in the upper 120m of the ocean and (c) Changes (anomalies) in export carbon production when bacteria have a high requirement for iron.

Through a series of computer simulations performed in the global ocean ecosystem model, the authors found that iron is a limiting factor for bacterial growth in iron-limited regions in the Southern Ocean, the tropical, and the subarctic Pacific due to the high iron requirement and iron uptake capability of bacteria. Bacteria act as an iron sink in the upper ocean due to their significant iron consumption, a rate comparable to phytoplankton. The competition between bacteria and phytoplankton for iron alters phytoplankton bloom dynamics, ocean carbon export, and the availability of dissolved organic carbon needed for bacterial growth. These results suggest that earth system models that omit bacteria ignore an important organism modulating biogeochemical responses of the ocean to future changes.

Authors:
Anh Le-Duy Pham (Laboratoire d’Océanographie et de Climatologie: Expérimentation et Approches Numériques (LOCEAN), IPSL, CNRS/UPMC/IRD/MNHN, Paris, France)
Olivier Aumont (Laboratoire d’Océanographie et de Climatologie: Expérimentation et Approches Numériques (LOCEAN), IPSL, CNRS/UPMC/IRD/MNHN, Paris, France)
Lavenia Ratnarajah (University of Liverpool, United Kingdom)
Alessandro Tagliabue (University of Liverpool, United Kingdom)

pH: the secrets that you keep

Posted by mmaheigan

· Monday, September 20th, 2021

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) defines ocean acidification as “a reduction in pH of the ocean over an extended period, typically decades or longer, caused primarily by the uptake of carbon dioxide (CO₂) from the atmosphere” (Rhein et al., 2013, p. 295). Does this mean that a greater change in pH at the ocean surface relative to the subsurface, or at one location relative to another, always indicates greater acidification? Based on this IPCC definition of ocean acidification, the answer is yes. But does that make sense?

Seawater pH is the negative base 10 logarithm of the seawater’s hydrogen ion concentration ([H⁺]) and is a useful way to display a wide range of [H⁺] in a compact form. A change in pH reflects a relative change in [H⁺]. Thus, anytime we speak of pH changes, we are really referring to a relative change in the chemical species of interest ([H⁺]). On the other hand, changes in all the other carbonate system variables that we measure are usually absolute. This characteristic of pH can lead to ambiguity in the interpretation and presentation of rates and patterns of change. Improved understanding comes from also studying changes in [H⁺], which can reveal aspects that studying changes in pH alone may conceal or overemphasize.

A recent Biogeosciences article reviewed the history leading to this unintuitive relationship between changes in pH and changes in [H⁺]. The article provides three real-world examples to display how examining pH changes alone can hide the ocean acidification signals of interest (Figure 1). These examples highlight potential challenges associated with comparing surface and subsurface pH changes across ocean domains without accounting for differences in the initial pH values. The authors recommend reporting both pH and [H⁺] in studies that assess changes in ocean chemistry to improve the clarity of ocean acidification research.

Figure Caption: Data used in this figure come from the GFDL ESM2M model for the combined historical and RCP8.5 experiments. Top: the 1950s surface ocean (left) pH and (right) [H+]. Bottom: the 1950s to 2090s change (Δ) in surface ocean (left) pH and (right) [H+]. The color bar for ΔpH is reversed to ease comparison with patterns of Δ[H+]

Authors:
Andrea J. Fassbender (NOAA Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory)
Andrew G. Dickson (Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego)
James C. Orr (LSCE/IPSL, Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l’Environnement)

Exploiting phytoplankton as a biosensor for nutrient limitation

Posted by mmaheigan

· Wednesday, September 15th, 2021

In the surface ocean, phytoplankton growth is often limited by a scarcity of key nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and iron. While this is important, there are methodological and conceptual difficulties in characterizing these nutrient limitations.

A recent paper published in Science Magazine leveraged a global metagenomic dataset from Bio-GO-SHIP to address these challenges. The authors characterized the abundance of genes that confer adaptations to nutrient limitation within the picocyanobacteria Prochlorococcus. Using the relative abundance of these genes as an indicator of nutrient limitation allowed the authors to capture expected regions of nutrient limitation, and novel regions that had not previously been studied. This gene-derived indicator of nutrient limitation matched previous methods of assessing nutrient limitation, such as bottle incubation experiments.

These findings have important implications for the global ocean. Characterizing the impact of nutrient limitation on primary production is especially critical in light of future stratification driven by climate change. In addition, this novel methodological approach allows scientists to use microbial communities as an eco-genomic biosensor of adaptation to changing nutrient regimes. For instance, future studies of coastal microbes or other ecosystems may help communities and environmental managers better understand how local microbial populations are adapting to climate change.

Watch an illustrated video overview of this research

Authors:
Lucas J. Ustick, Alyse A. Larkin, Catherine A. Garcia, Nathan S. Garcia, Melissa L. Brock, Jenna A. Lee, Nicola A. Wiseman, J. Keith Moore, Adam C. Martiny
(all University of California, Irvine)

How atmospheric and oceanographic forcing impact the carbon sequestration in an ultra-oligotrophic marine system

Posted by mmaheigan

· Wednesday, August 11th, 2021

Sinking particles are a critical conduit for the export of material from the surface to the deep ocean. Despite their importance in oceanic carbon cycling, little is known about the composition and seasonal variability of sinking particles which reach abyssal depths. Oligotrophic waters cover ~75% of the ocean surface and contribute over 30% of the global marine carbon fixation. Understanding the processes that control carbon export to the deep oligotrophic areas is crucial to better characterize the strength and efficiency of the biological pump as well as to project the response of these systems to climate fluctuations and anthropogenic perturbations.

In a recent study published in Frontiers in Earth Science, authors synthesized data from atmospheric and oceanographic parameters, together with main mass components, and stable isotope and source-specific lipid biomarker composition of sinking particles collected in the deep Eastern Mediterranean Sea (4285m, Ierapetra Basin) for a three-year period (June 2010-June 2013). In addition, this study compared the sinking particulate flux data with previously reported deep-sea surface sediments from the study area to shed light on the benthic–pelagic coupling.

Figure Caption: a) Biplot of net primary productivity vs export efficiency (top and bottom horizontal dashed lines indicate threshold for high and low export efficiency regimes). b) Biplot of POC-normalized concentrations of terrestrial vs. phytoplankton-derived lipid biomarkers of the sinking particles collected in the deep Eastern Mediterranean Sea (Ierapetra Basin, NW Levantine Basin) from June 2010–June 2013, and surface sediments collected from January 2007 to June 2012 in the study area.

Both seasonal and episodic pulses are crucial for POC export to the deep Eastern Mediterranean Sea. POC fluxes peaked in spring April–May 2012 (12.2 mg m⁻² d⁻¹) related with extreme atmospheric forcing. Overall, summer particle export fuels more efficient carbon sequestration than the other seasons. The results of this study highlight that the combination of extreme weather events and aerosol deposition can trigger an influx of both marine labile carbon and anthropogenic compounds to the deep. Finally, the comparison of the sinking particles flux data with surface sediments revealed an isotopic discrimination, as well as a preferential degradation of labile organic matter during deposition and burial, along with higher preservation of land-derived POC in the underlying sediments. This study provides key knowledge to better understand the export, fate and preservation vs. degradation of organic carbon, and for modeling the organic carbon burial rates in the Mediterranean Sea.

Authors:
Rut Pedrosa-Pamies (The Ecosystems Center, Marine Biological Laboratory, US; Research Group in Marine Geosciences, University of Barcelona, Spain)
Constantine Parinos (Institute of Oceanography, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research, Greece)
Anna Sanchez-Vidal (Group in Marine Geosciences, University of Barcelona, Spain)
Antoni Calafat (Group in Marine Geosciences, University of Barcelona, Spain)
Miquel Canals (Group in Marine Geosciences, University of Barcelona, Spain)
Dimitris Velaoras (Institute of Oceanography, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research, Greece)
Nikolaos Mihalopoulos (Environmental Chemical Processes Laboratory, University of Crete; National Observatory of Athens, Greece)
Maria Kanakidou (Environmental Chemical Processes Laboratory, University of Crete Greece)
Nikolaos Lampadariou (Institute of Oceanography, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research, Greece)
Alexandra Gogou (Institute of Oceanography, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research, Greece)

A new proxy for ocean iron bioavailability

Posted by mmaheigan

· Monday, July 26th, 2021

In many oceanic regions, iron exerts strong control on phytoplankton growth, ecosystem structure and carbon cycling. Yet, iron bioavailability and uptake rates by phytoplankton in the ocean are poorly constrained.

Recently, Shaked et al. (2020) (see GEOTRACES highlight), established a new approach for quantifying the availability of dissolved Fe (dFe) in natural seawater based on its uptake kinetics by Fe-limited cultured phytoplankton. In a follow up study published in GBC, this approach was extended to in situ phytoplankton, establishing a standardized proxy for dFe bioavailability in low-Fe ocean regions.

As explained in the short video lecture above, Yeala Shaked, Ben Twining, and their colleagues have analyzed large datasets collected during 10 research cruises (including 3 GEOTRACES section and process cruises) in multiple ocean regions. Dissolved Fe bioavailability was estimated through single cell Fe uptake rates, calculated by combining measured Fe contents of individual phytoplankton cells collected with concurrently-measured dFe concentrations, as well as modeled growth rates (Figure). Then the authors applied this proxy for: a) comparing dFe bioavailability among organisms and regions; b) calculating dFe uptake rates and residence times in low-Fe oceanic regions; and c) constraining Fe uptake parameters of earth system models to better predict ocean productivity in response to climate-change.

The data suggest that dFe species are highly available in low-Fe settings, likely due to photochemical reactions in sunlit waters.

Figure 1: The new bioavailability proxy (an uptake rate constant-kin-app) was calculated for ~1000 single cells from multiple ocean regions. For each cell, the iron quota was measured with synchrotron x-ray fluorescence (left panel), a growth rate was estimated from the PISCES model for the corresponding phytoplankton group (right panel), and the dissolved Fe concentration was measured concurrently (middle panel).

Authors:
Y. Shaked (Hebrew University and Interuniversity Institute for Marine Sciences)
B.S. Twining (Bigelow Lab)
A. Tagliabue (University of Liverpool)
M.T. Maldonado (University of British Columbia)
K.N. Buck (University of South Florida)
T. Mellett (University of South Florida)

References:
Shaked, Y., Twining, B. S., Tagliabue, A., & Maldonado, M. T. (2021). Probing the bioavailability of dissolved iron to marine eukaryotic phytoplankton using in situ single cell iron quotas. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, e2021GB006979. https://doi.org/10.1029/2021GB006979

Shaked, Y., Buck, K. N., Mellett, T., & Maldonado, M. T. (2020). Insights into the bioavailability of oceanic dissolved Fe from phytoplankton uptake kinetics. The ISME Journal, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41396-020-0597-3

Joint highlight with GEOTRACES – read here.

Acidity across the interface from the ocean surface to sea spray aerosol

Posted by mmaheigan

· Wednesday, March 31st, 2021

The pH of aerosols controls their impact on climate and human health. Sea spray aerosols are one of the largest sources of aerosols globally by mass, yet it has been challenging to measure the pH of fresh sea spray aerosols in the past. A recent study published in PNAS measured sea spray aerosols under controlled conditions, during a sampling intensive called SeaSCAPE, and optimized a pH paper-based technique to measure the aerosol acidity. The authors found that fresh sea spray aerosols can be rapidly acidified by 4 to 6 orders of magnitude relative to the ocean. This acidification is caused by interaction with surrounding acidic gases, changes in relative humidity, and enhanced dissociation of organic acids within the aerosols. This is a critical finding since the pH of aerosols controls key atmospheric chemical reactions including sulfur dioxide oxidation to form particulate sulfate. The results are also important in light of the fact that enzyme activity has been observed in sea spray aerosols, and enzyme activity is pH dependent.

Figure 1. Acidity of nascent sea spray aerosols (SSA) compared to bulk ocean water measured during the 2019 SeaSCAPE sampling intensive. Background artwork by Nigella Hillgarth.

Authors
Kyle Angle (University of California, San Diego)
Daniel Crocker (University of California, San Diego)
Rebecca Simpson (University of California, San Diego)
Kathryn Mayer (University of California, San Diego)
Lauren Garofalo (Colorado State University, Fort Collins)
Alexia Moore (University of California, San Diego)
Stephanie Mora Garcia (University of California, San Diego)
Victor Or (University of California, San Diego)
Sudarshan Srinivasan (University of California, San Diego)
Mahum Farhan (University of California, San Diego)
Jonathan Sauer (University of California, San Diego)
Christopher Lee (University of California, San Diego)
Matson Pothier (Colorado State University, Fort Collins)
Delphine Farmer (Colorado State University, Fort Collins)
Todd Martz (University of California, San Diego)
Timothy Bertram (University of Wisconsin, Madison)
Christopher Cappa (University of California, Davis)
Kimberly Prather (University of California, San Diego)
Vicki Grassian (University of California, San Diego)

Joint post with Surface Ocean – Lower Atmosphere Study (SOLAS)

How environmental drivers regulated the long-term evolution of the biological pump

Posted by mmaheigan

· Friday, January 22nd, 2021

The marine biological pump (BP) plays a crucial role in regulating earth’s atmospheric oxygen and carbon dioxide levels by transferring carbon fixed by primary producers into the ocean interior and marine sediments, thereby controlling the habitability of our planet. The rise of multicellular life and eukaryotic algae in the ocean about 700 million years ago would likely have influenced the physical characteristics of oceanic aggregates (e.g., sinking rate), yet the magnitude of the impact this biological innovation had on the efficiency of BP is unknown.

Figure. 1. The impact of biological innovations (left) and environmental factors (atmospheric oxygen level and seawater temperature; right) on the efficiency of marine biological pump (BP). Temperatures are ocean surface temperatures (SST), and atmospheric pO2 is shown relative to the present atmospheric level (PAL). The BP efficiency is calculated as the fraction of carbon exported from the surface ocean that is delivered to the sediment-water interface. The results indicate that evolution of larger sized algae and zooplanktons has little influence on the long-term evolution of biological pump (left panel). The change in the atmospheric oxygen level and seawater surface temperature as environmental factors, on the other hand, have a stronger leverage on the efficiency of biological pump (right panel).

The authors of a recent paper in Nature Geoscience constructed a particle-based stochastic model to explore the change in the efficiency of the BP in response to biological and physical changes in the ocean over geologic time. The model calculates the age of organic particles in each aggregate based on their sinking rates, and considers the impact of primary producer cell size, aggregation, temperature, dust flux, biomineralization, ballasting by mineral phases, oxygen, and the fractal geometry (porosity) of aggregates. The model results demonstrate that while the rise of larger-sized eukaryotes led to an increase in the average sinking rate of oceanic aggregates, its impact on BP efficiency was minor. The evolution of zooplankton (with daily vertical migration in the water column) had a larger impact on the carbon transfer into the ocean interior. But results suggest that environmental factors most strongly affected the marine carbon pump efficiency. Specifically, increased ocean temperatures and greater atmospheric oxygen abundance led to a significant decrease in the efficiency of the BP. Cumulatively, these results suggest that while major biological innovations influenced the efficiency of BP, the long-term evolution of the marine carbon pump was primarily controlled by environmental drivers such as climate cooling and warming. By enhancing the rate of heterotrophic microbial degradation, our results suggest that the anthropogenically-driven global warming can result in a less efficient BP with reduced power of marine ecosystem in sequestering carbon from the atmosphere.

Authors:
Mojtaba Fakhraee (Yale University, Georgia Tech, and NASA Astrobiology Institute)
Noah J. Planavsky (Yale University, and NASA Astrobiology Institute)
Christopher T. Reinhard (Georgia Tech, and NASA Astrobiology Institute)

Funding for the Ocean Carbon & Biogeochemistry Project Office is provided by the National Science Foundation (NSF) and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The OCB Project Office is housed at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.

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